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2023 (5)

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Dissertation
Improvement of the analytical methods for mineral oil analysis in food using a novel LC-GCXGC-TOFMS/FID platform

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Les hydrocarbures d’huile minérale sont une source de contamination largement répandue. Les composés sont généralement divisés en 2 classes : les huiles minérales composées d’hydrocarbures saturées (MOSH) et celles composées d’hydrocarbures aromatiques (MOAH). Récemment, en 2023, l’agence européenne pour la sécurité alimentaire (EFSA) a mis à jour son opinion, initialement publiée en 2012, concluant que les MOSH ont une toxicité aigüe minimale (avec une limite où aucun effet contraire n’est observé à 236 mg/kg) avec aucune génotoxicité associée à ces composés. Pour les MOAH, au contraire, plus de données sont nécessaires pour réaliser une évaluation fiable du risque. Il a été conclu que les composés aromatiques avec 3 cycles aromatiques ou plus sont responsables de la génotoxicité associée aux MOAH. Cependant, l’impact des alkylations sur la toxicité est encore inconnu. Des promoteurs de tumeurs non-génotoxiques sont liés aux MOAH mais l’origine de ces promoteurs est inconnue. La concentration des différentes classes de MOAH dans les aliments n’est pas bien définie et il est donc difficile de définir des limites dans les aliments. Comme il n’y a pas de données concluantes sur les MOAH avec 1 ou 2cycles aromatiques, aucune évaluation de risques n’est disponible pour ces composés qui pourraient pourtant être dangereux pour la santé humaine. De plus, l’EFSA recommande l’amélioration des techniques analytiques utilisées pour mieux caractériser l’ensemble de la contamination et la quantité présente pour chaque sous-fractions des MOSH et des MOAH.En effet, la détermination des huiles minérales est très ardue d’un point de vue analytique. La méthode d’analyse de routine implique l’utilisation d’une technique avancée d’hyphénation : chromatographie liquide couplée à une chromatographie gazeuse avec un détecteur à ionisation de flamme (LC-GC-FID) mais cette technique ne permet pas de caractériser les différentes sous-classes (notamment le nombre de cycles dans la fraction aromatique). En outre, L’enrichissement et l’élimination des interférences nécessaire pour certaines matrices sont aussi responsables pour créer des problèmes ; Parfois en impactant les composés analysés ou en diminuant la fiabilité des résultats obtenus en dessous des exigences désirées.Pour élucider et résoudre les limitations mentionnées ci-dessus, cette thèse étudie l’utilisation d’une nouvelle plateforme LC-GC×GC-TOFMS/FID spécialement désignée pour l’analyse des huiles minérales. Le but est d’utiliser les dimensions de séparations supplémentaires (GC×GC et TOFMS), comparé à la technique standard de LC-GC-FID, afin d’obtenir le plus d’informations possibles pour chaque analyse.Néanmoins, la première étape pour atteindre cet objectif est de prouver et d’assurer que les données obtenues sont fiables et répétables. Cette thèse se concentre principalement sur le développement du plug-in du logiciel ChromaTOF pour quantifier les chromatogrammes de manière fiable en 2D. La comparaison avec les données obtenues par d’autres laboratoires dans le cadre d’essais interlaboratoires a permis de valider les résultats. En plus d’être fiable, les nouvelles fonctionnalités du logiciel permettent, par automatisation, de diminuer l’interprétation du chromatogram lié à la subjectivité de l’opérateur. La nouvelle plateforme offre aussi la possibilité de collecter les informations requises par l’EFSA concernant l’occurrence des différentes classes dans la fraction MOAH. Finalement, ce document va fournir le commencement de futures améliorations sur la préparation d’échantillon, longue et fastidieuse pour l’analyse de ces composés dans les matrices difficiles. De plus, des échantillons venant du marché ont été analysés et ont permis d’obtenir des données sur l’occurrence dans les échantillons alimentaires (humaine et animale).

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Dissertation
Bovine leukemia virus antisense transcription is essential for viral replication and oncogenesis
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Year: 2023

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Bovine Leukemia Virus (BLV) is a retrovirus that naturally infects the B lymphocytes of different species of the Bovidae family. The virus integrates into the host genome as a provirus, resulting in a lifelong infection. BLV induces a fatal disease called Enzootic Bovine Leukosis (EBL). Shortly after infection, viral sense transcription (from the 5’LTR to the 3’LTR) is strongly repressed by epigenetic mechanisms. However, the provirus still constitutively transcribes non-immunogenic microRNAs and RNAs via antisense transcription (from the 3’LTR to the 5’LTR). The biological function of antisense transcription is currently unknown. In this context, the objective of this thesis is to evaluate the relationship between antisense transcription, viral persistence, and oncogenesis. A reverse genetics approach was implemented, exploiting a mechanistic difference during the initiation of sense and antisense transcription. A mutation of only two base pairs in the provirus (A1) impaired antisense transcription in cell culture and sheep. RNA sequencing, confocal microscopy, and immunochemistry data revealed that expression of the HMCN-1 gene encoding the Hemicentin-1 protein was upregulated in B lymphocytes infected by the provirus carrying the A1 mutation. RNA interference showed that HMCN-1 was involved in cell adherence, migration, and death. In contrast to the wild-type, the A1 provirus did not induce leukemia/lymphoma. In conclusion, this thesis highlights the role of antisense transcription in viral persistence and oncogenesis induced by BLV. These observations may be helpful to understand better the pathogenesis of the Human T-cell Leukemia Virus type 1 (HTLV-1).

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Dissertation
Prioritizing biodiversity conservation in degraded environments : mapping landscape connectivity challenges using biological data and local ecological knowledge

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Cette thèse a pour objectif de développer des méthodologies pour identifier les priorités de conservation de la biodiversité dans des paysages fragmentés en tenant compte de la dynamique des méta-populations et de la connectivité des habitats des espèces. La recherche a englobé plusieurs aspects clés de la conservation de la biodiversité dans les paysages dégradés, tels que la cartographie des biotopes et des corridors d'espèces les reliant. Pour commencer, l'étude s'est concentrée sur la délimitation des éléments du paysage en utilisant le concept d'écotopes, qui sont les plus petites unités homogènes d’un système cartographique. Une nouvelle approche utilisant des données spectrales et la topographie a amélioré l'homogénéité écologique de la délimitation des écotopes. Ces écotopes se sont révélés adaptés pour modéliser la distribution des biotopes, ce qui est crucial pour comprendre les priorités de conservation du paysage et guider les inventaires sur le terrain. Ensuite, une approche de modélisation des biotopes a été développé pour prédire avec précision la présence de plusieurs biotopes dans une région en intégrant l’aspect dynamique des communautés végétales. Le concept de Végétation Naturelle Potentielle (VNP) a été utilisé pour regrouper les biotopes par contexte écologique. Cette approche a permis d'obtenir un ensemble de données de présence/absence robustes pour la calibration des modèles et a présenté des améliorations significatives de la sensibilité du modèle par rapport aux méthodes traditionnelles. L'importance de la modélisation des VNP pour saisir l’enveloppe écologique historique des biotopes a été soulignée. Par la suite, nous avons exploré la cartographie des corridors d'espèces, en utilisant l'exemple du chat sauvage. Différentes approches ont été comparées, notamment les connaissances d'experts et les méthodes de modélisation basées sur les observations d'espèces. Une approche basée sur les données de présence seule s'est avérée plus performante en termes d'efficacité, tandis que toutes les approches ont identifié les mêmes corridors critiques pour maintenir la connectivité du réseau. L'analyse des graphes a révélé différents points centraux cruciaux pour la connectivité du paysage, suggérant l'approche basée sur les données lorsque des données précises sont disponibles et l'approche basée sur les connaissances lorsque la compréhension de l'habitat des espèces est bien établie. La recherche s'est ensuite étendue à la modélisation de réseaux d'habitats de plusieurs espèces afin de garantir la connectivité du paysage pour des espèces ayant des besoins de connectivité différents. Une approche basée sur les connaissances a été utilisée en tenant compte des espèces focales sensibles à la fragmentation et de leurs traits de vie associés. L'analyse statistique par cluster a regroupé les espèces en fonction de leur sensibilité à la fragmentation, facilitant le choix des espèces pour effectuer des analyses basées sur les graphes afin de prioriser les enjeux de connectivité. En conclusion, cette thèse a développé des méthodologies permettant d'identifier les priorités de conservation de la biodiversité dans les paysages fragmentés. Les résultats contribuent à la compréhension et à la promotion de la connectivité des paysages et soulignent l'importance de prendre en compte ces considérations écologiques dans la planification et la gestion des paysages.

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Dissertation
Development of replicative adenovirus vectored oral vaccines using Mouse Adenovirus type 1 as a model
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Year: 2023

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This thesis focuses on investigating the potential of Mouse Adenovirus type 1 (MAV-1) as a model for developing oral replication-competent adenovirus-vectored vaccines. The ability of MAV-1 to induce subclinical infection when entering through the gastrointestinal route, while respiratory entry causes a severe respiratory disease (Goffin et al., 2019), is an interesting property that has been extensively used by oral vaccines for Human Adenovirus-4 (HAdV-4) and -7. Replication competent AdVs have emerged as attractive candidates for vaccine platforms, particularly for oral administration. However, the mechanisms underlying AdV oral immunizations are still poorly understood, and the potential of these viruses as oral vaccine vectors has been insufficiently investigated so far. One important reason for the lack of knowledge regarding replication-competent AdV vaccines is that human AdV do not replicate efficiently in laboratory animals. Our study uses MAV-1 in mice, its natural host, to develop a small animal model for oral replication-competent AdV-based vaccines under conditions that support fully replicative infection. MAV-1 interaction with mice serves as a natural virus-host model that facilitates the development of oral replication-competent vaccine vectors in a small animal model that can be easily used for various experiments. The first part involves the development of MAV-1 strains expressing different antigens of Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) and testing them as oral vaccines in mice. CDV is a fatal and highly contagious pathogen affecting multiple carnivores. While injectable vaccines are very effective in protecting domestic animals, their use in the wild is not feasible. Therefore, alternative vaccines are needed. Based on these observations, the use of oral administration of replication-competent AdV-vectored vaccines has emerged as a promising tool, especially for wildlife vaccination. First, different vaccine vectors expressing the entire or partial H or F proteins of CDV were constructed. These different strains were then used as oral vaccines in BALB/c mice, and the immune response to CDV was evaluated. Only the strain expressing the fulllength H protein of CDV generated a detectable and neutralizing immune response against CDV. Secondly, using this strain, we were able to demonstrate that although this type of vaccine is sensitive to pre-existing immunity to the vector, a second oral administration of the same vaccine is able to boost the immune response against CDV. Overall, this study demonstrates the feasibility of using replicating AdVs as oral vaccine vectors to immunize against CDV. The second part aims to address the development of effective and flexible vaccine platforms in the context of influenza vaccines that need to be updated every year. Here, we orally vaccinated mice with a MAV-1 vector expressing influenza hemagglutinin (HA) to assess the protection conferred against an intranasal challenge with influenza. We showed that a single oral immunization with this vaccine generates influenza-specific and neutralizing antibodies, and completely protects mice against clinical signs and viral replication, similar to traditional inactivated vaccines. Finally, the third part focussed on using luciferase (Luc)/green fluorescent protein (GFP)-expressing MAV-1 to study AdV infection and tropism in vivo, using different infection routes in mice. Different strains of mice were used as they exhibit varying susceptibility to MAV-1. In the end, our results allowed showing that brain infection is not dependent on monocyte infiltration but could involve brain pericytes and crossing the blood brain barrier via transcytosis. Altogether, this work allowed to better characterize the usage of replicationcompetent AdV oral vaccines in eliciting adaptive immunity against infectious diseases. This work could contribute to the development of effective vaccines to protect humans and animals from future epidemic.

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Dissertation
Analysis of cassava brown streak disease in Rwanda : incidence, dissemination, genetic diversity, and innovative mitigation strategies

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Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD), caused by Cassava brown streak ipomoviruses (CBSIs), namely Cassava brown streak virus (CBSV) and Ugandan cassava brown streak virus (UCBSV), poses a significant threat to global food security. It particularly jeopardizes the food security of tropical Africa, where approximately 450 million people rely heavily on cassava as a staple food and vital income source. In Rwanda, CBSD has rapidly spread since its first report in 2009, with the incidence rising from 18.5% in 2012 to 69% in 2014. This widespread outbreak has resulted in severe consequences, including a shortage of planting materials and a 73% decline in cassava yields. CBSD is primarily transmitted to a longer distance through infected cuttings and, to a shorter distance, by the white fly vector. Infected plants exhibit symptoms on the leaves, stem, and, very importantly, on the storage roots, rendering them unsuitable for consumption. In response to the CBSD outbreak, the government of Rwanda and researchers have joined forces to combat the burden of CBSD. Notably, they started to import and distribute tolerant cassava planting materials to farmers in 2015. Given that infected cuttings are a significant transmission mode for CBSD, it is imperative to break the cycle of disease transmission and minimize the risk of CBSD spread and its consequences by ensuring the availability of healthy planting materials. In this context, in vitro virus cleaning approaches were applied to combat the virus build-up effect over multiple cycles due to cassava's vegetative nature. However, these approaches take time and are often too costly for subsistence crops. Furthermore, studies have been conducted to assess the prevalence and diversity of CBSD causative agents in Rwanda, albeit with a focus limited to partial coat protein, and different breeding research projects have been initiated. These initiatives were reflecting important investments to mitigate the impact of CBSD while acknowledging the need for further extensive research to tackle the disease comprehensively. In this regard, the first goal of this thesis was to conduct a countrywide cassava seed system survey to determine CBSD status following interventions and the risk factors that may contribute to its continued spread in Rwanda. To achieve this, 130 cassava farmers were interviewed across 13 major cassava-growing districts and their fields were visited to evaluate disease incidence. Leaf samples were collected and analyzed using RT-PCR (reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction) to confirm CBSIs infection. The findings revealed that CBSD has spread in all surveyed districts, and the overall incidence was 35.3%, with UCBSV being the most common, accounting for 61% of the infections. Several key risk factors that could contribute to the spread of the disease in Rwanda were also identified, including the source of planting materials, geographical location, knowledge of disease transmission, and disease management practices. These findings highlight the need to develop a robust seed system and train farmers to increase awareness and skills to mitigate the spread and impact of CBSD in cassava farming communities. Recognizing the pivotal role of robust diagnostic tools in fortifying the seed system, the second goal of this thesis was to investigate the genetic diversity of CBSD-causing agents in Rwanda by analyzing whole genomes with innovative methods to provide valuable insights into the evolutionary patterns of CBSIs in Rwanda. High-throughput sequencing (HTS) technologies were applied on 13 pooled samples (corresponding to 13 surveyed districts), enabling us to obtain comprehensive genomic data. Through HTS data analysis, 12 nearly complete consensus genomes of UCBSV were successfully reconstructed. Phylogenetic analysis of these genomes revealed a remarkable reduction in genetic diversity, with a maximum of 0.8% nucleotide divergence between the genomes. Further investigation beyond the consensus sequences utilizing the combination of fixation index (FST) calculation and Principal Component Analysis (PCA) based on SNPs patterns unveiled three distinct UCBSV haplotypes exhibiting geographic clustering. Interestingly, the distribution of haplotype two (H2) was found to be associated with one of the CBSD tolerant cultivars widely distributed to farmers, "NAROCAS1". In addition, HTS allowed the assembly of the partial genome of Manihot esculenta-associated virus 1(MEaV-1) for the first time in Rwanda. Identifying distinct UCBSV haplotypes and their geographic distribution represents the first study in Rwanda, marking a significant advancement into the local patterns of UCBSV evolution, facilitating a better understanding of the disease's spread, and developing targeted control strategies. Considering that the current main CBSD management relies on the distribution of tolerant cultivars susceptible to viral buildup effect, the third objective of this thesis was to transform existing in vitro virus cleaning methods into practical farmer-friendly approaches at the greenhouse and field levels toward CBSD mitigation. The present study assessed the effectiveness of combining greenhouse thermotherapy with chemotherapy and field chemotherapy, employing salicylic acid (SA) and Benzothiadiazole (BTH) on CBSIs-infected cuttings. The results revealed a remarkable reduction in viral loads, especially when combining thermotherapy with SA at 50 mg/L and thermotherapy with BTH at 50 mg/L, which exhibited the most substantial reduction compared to other treatments. Additionally, a significant decrease in the severity of CBSD root symptoms through field chemotherapy was observed among treated plants. These findings highlight the potential effectiveness of these combined approaches in mitigating the impact of CBSD and offer promising avenues for disease management in cassava. Furthermore, RNA sequencing on uninfected cassava plants exogenously treated with SA and BTH was conducted to investigate their impact on the cassava transcriptome. It was revealed that SA and BTH deregulate numerous cassava genes, including genes with potential involvement in plant defense, such as transcription factors (e.g., WRKY), Leucine Rich Repeat (LRR) Protein, Heat shock Protein (HSP), Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase (MAPK), Cytochrome P450, and ethylene-responsive genes. The gene ontology (GO) enrichment analysis revealed that hormone signaling, defense response, response to stress, and regulation of transcription were among the enriched GO, suggesting their potential role in viral host response. Overall, this thesis contributed significantly to understanding and managing CBSD, providing valuable knowledge for sustainable cassava farming in Rwanda. The countrywide farmers and cassava fields survey provided crucial findings on CBSD status and risk factors, emphasizing the urgency of a robust seed system and farmers' training. The high-resolution investigation into UCBSV genetic diversity through an innovative approach shed light on its evolutionary patterns and geographic distribution, offering insights for targeted control measures. Finally, transforming in vitro virus cleaning methods into greenhouse and field approaches showcased promising results in reducing CBSD severity and viral loads, supported by identifying potential defense-related cassava genes. The present thesis can also serve as the basis for future research. Notably, the innovative approach to characterizing genetic diversity could be applied to study other crucial plant viruses. It is also worth investigating CBSV diversity and the factors driving the evolution of CBSIs in Rwanda. Furthermore, future research is needed to optimize the efficacy of greenhouse and field CBSD mitigation approaches and delve into the specific functions of genes regulated by SA and BTH. Moreover, assessing the impact of chemotherapy on the environment and microbiome and analyzing large-scale cost-benefit viability would provide invaluable insights. These avenues of exploration will undoubtedly contribute to a deeper understanding of virus management strategies and bolster efforts to safeguard plant health and agricultural productivity.

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