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Money and Monetary Policy --- International Economics --- Public Finance --- Labor --- Production and Operations Management --- Investments: General --- Monetary Policy --- International Agreements and Observance --- International Organizations --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Health: General --- National Government Expenditures and Health --- National Government Expenditures and Education --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: Infrastructures --- Other Public Investment and Capital Stock --- Monetary economics --- International institutions --- Public finance & taxation --- Health economics --- Macroeconomics --- Labour --- income economics --- Education --- Monetary policy --- International organization --- Health --- Health care spending --- Expenditure --- Education spending --- Public investment spending --- International agencies --- Expenditures, Public --- Public investments --- Human capital --- Industrial productivity --- Côte d'Ivoire

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We review Greek public sector healthcare policies and health-related outcomes since 2010.We find that excess spending was successfully curtailed, elements of the institutional framework were modernized, and health outcomes have been relatively favorable. However, especially prior to Covid-19, public healthcare spending had been compressed to potentially unsustainable levels, with widening inequalities and large unmet needs, especially among the poor. Higher public spending and advancing structural healthcare reforms are needed to improve the efficiency and equity of the Greek healthcare system, including strengthening primary healthcare, reducing out-of-pocket payments, and eliminating remaining insurance gaps.

Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- Public Finance --- National Government Expenditures and Health --- Health: Government Policy --- Regulation --- Public Health --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Health: General --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Public finance & taxation --- Health economics --- Health --- Expenditure --- Health care spending --- Total expenditures --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Expenditures, Public --- Greece

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High persistence of state fragility (a fragility trap) suggests the presence of substantial benefits from avoiding a fall into fragility and considerable hurdles to successful exit from fragility. This paper empirically examines the factors that affect the turning points of entering and exiting from state fragility by employing three different approaches: an event study, the synthetic control method, and a logit model. We find that avoiding economic contraction is critical to prevent a country on the brink of fragility from falling into fragility (e.g., among near fragile countries, the probability of entering fragility would rise by 40 percentage points should real GDP per capita growth decline from +2.5 percent to -2.5 percent). Also, strengthening government effectiveness together with increasing political inclusion and maintaining robust economic activity should help make exit from fragility more successful and sustainable. In the current environment (the COVID-19 crisis and its aftermath), the findings suggest the importance of providing well-directed fiscal stimulus with sufficient financing, (subject to appropriate governance safeguards and well-designed policies), and protecting critical socio-economic spending to keep vulnerable countries away from being caught in a fragility trap.

Macroeconomics --- Economics: General --- International Economics --- Econometrics --- Public Finance --- Foreign Exchange --- Informal Economy --- Underground Econom --- Discrete Regression and Qualitative Choice Models --- Discrete Regressors --- Proportions --- National Government Expenditures and Education --- National Government Expenditures and Health --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Economic & financial crises & disasters --- Economics of specific sectors --- Econometrics & economic statistics --- Public finance & taxation --- Financial crises --- Economic sectors --- Logit models --- Econometric analysis --- Education spending --- Expenditure --- Health care spending --- Income --- National accounts --- Currency crises --- Informal sector --- Economics --- Econometric models --- Expenditures, Public

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We document the short-term impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Brazilian labor market focusing on employment, wages and hours worked using the nationally representative household surveys PNAD-Continua and PNAD COVID. Sectors most susceptible to the shock because they are more contact-intensive and less teleworkable, such as construction, domestic services and hospitality, suffered large job losses and reductions in hours. Given low income workers experienced the largest decline in earnings, extreme poverty and the Gini coefficient based on labor income increased by around 9.2 and 5 percentage points, respectively, due to the immediate shock. The government’s broad based, temporary Emergency Aid transfer program more than offset the labor income losses for the bottom four deciles, however, such that poverty relative to the pre-COVID baseline fell. At a cost of around 4 percent of GDP in 2020 such support is not fiscally sustainable beyond the short-term and ended in late 2020. The challenge will be to avoid a sharp increase in poverty and inequality if the labor market does not pick up sufficiently fast in 2021.

Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Diseases: Contagious --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- National Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs --- Particular Labor Markets: General --- Health Behavior --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution --- Labour --- income economics --- Infectious & contagious diseases --- COVID-19 --- Labor markets --- Income --- Health --- National accounts --- Communicable diseases --- Economic theory --- Labor market --- Brazil --- Poverty. --- Poverty --- Labor. --- Macroeconomics. --- Diseases: Contagious. --- Personal Income, Wealth, and Their Distributions. --- Employment. --- Unemployment. --- Wages. --- Intergenerational Income Distribution. --- Aggregate Human Capital. --- Aggregate Labor Productivity. --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General. --- National Government Expenditures and Welfare Programs. --- Particular Labor Markets: General. --- Health Behavior. --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General. --- Unemployment: Models, Duration, Incidence, and Job Search. --- Aggregate Factor Income Distribution. --- Labour. --- income economics. --- Infectious & contagious diseases. --- COVID-19. --- Labor markets. --- Income. --- Health. --- National accounts. --- Communicable diseases. --- Economic theory. --- Labor market. --- Philosophy. --- Brazil.

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Money and Monetary Policy --- International Economics --- Infrastructure --- Public Finance --- Diseases: Contagious --- Sustainable Development --- Monetary Policy --- International Agreements and Observance --- International Organizations --- Investment --- Capital --- Intangible Capital --- Capacity --- Health Behavior --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: General --- National Government Expenditures and Related Policies: Infrastructures --- Other Public Investment and Capital Stock --- Health: General --- Monetary economics --- International institutions --- Macroeconomics --- Public finance & taxation --- Infectious & contagious diseases --- Health economics --- Development economics & emerging economies --- Monetary policy --- International organization --- National accounts --- COVID-19 --- Health --- Expenditure efficiency --- Expenditure --- Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) --- Development --- International agencies --- Saving and investment --- Communicable diseases --- Expenditures, Public --- Public investments --- Gambia, The