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The International Energy Agency (IEA) conducts in-depth peer reviews of the energy policies of its members and non-member countries. This process supports a holistic approach to energy policy development and encourages the exchange of international best practices and experiences. This report is the first in-depth review conducted by the EU4Energy programme (implemented by the IEA and the European Union) in the 2019-2021 cycle. It updates and extends the analysis of energy policies in the countries of Eastern Europe, Caucasus and Central Asia that the IEA conducted in 2015. Since the 2015 review, Georgia has made solid progress in improving both the security and sustainability of its energy supply. The country entered into the EU-Georgia Association Agreement in 2016 and become a Contracting party of the Energy Community Treaty in 2017. Since then, it has made significant legal and institutional reforms demonstrating the government's commitment to align its energy sector with EU regulations for electricity and gas markets, security of supply, renewable energy, energy efficiency and statistics. The energy sector has been instrumental in establishing Georgia's overall economic policy focused on creating a liberalised environment through minimal state interference, deregulation, privatisation, reduced and simplified licensing and taxation, and free trade, earning the country the reputation of a "star reformer". Taking advantage of its favourable geographical situation, Georgia plays an important role in the regional trade of electricity, oil and natural gas. Nevertheless, Georgia is still confronted with many challenges in its transition to a more secure, sustainable and affordable energy future. The government recognises most of them and is considering various measures to address them. There is room for the further strengthening of the country's long-term energy strategy, raising institutional capacity and improving coordination between stakeholders to develop policies based on solid analysis of supply-demand trends and alternative scenario models. More efforts could be made to develop effective secondary legislation to accelerate the implementation of the EU energy acquis, and to gradually phase out implicit subsidies and cross-subsidies in the electricity and gas sectors. In this report, the IEA provides recommendations for further improvements of Georgia's policies to help the country guide the transformation of its energy sector.

Energy --- Georgia

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The Huns, invading through Dariali Gorge on the modern-day border between Russia and Georgia in AD 395 and 515, spread terror across the late antique world. Was this the prelude to the apocalypse? Prophecies foresaw a future Hunnic onslaught, via the same mountain pass, bringing about the end of the world. Humanity's fate depended on a gated barrier deep in Europe's highest and most forbidding mountain chain. Centuries before the emergence of such apocalyptic beliefs, the gorge had reached world fame. It was the target of a planned military expedition by the Emperor Nero. Chained to the dramatic sheer cliffs, framing the narrow passage, the mythical fire-thief Prometheus suffered severe punishment, his liver devoured by an eagle. It was known under multiple names, most commonly the Caspian or Alan Gates. Featuring in the works of literary giants, no other mountain pass in the ancient and medieval world matches Dariali's fame. Yet little was known about the materiality of this mythical place. A team of archaeologists has now shed much new light on the major gorge-blocking fort and a barrier wall on a steep rocky ridge further north. The walls still standing today were built around the time of the first major Hunnic invasion in the late fourth century - when the Caucasus defences feature increasingly prominently in negotiations between the Great Powers of Persia and Rome. In its endeavour to strongly fortify the strategic mountain pass through the Central Caucasus, the workforce erased most traces of earlier occupation. The Persian-built bastion saw heavy occupation for 600 years. Its multi-faith medieval garrison controlled Trans-Caucasian traffic. Everyday objects and human remains reveal harsh living conditions and close connections to the Muslim South, as well as the steppe world of the north. The Caspian Gates explains how a highly strategic rock has played a pivotal role in world history from Classical Antiquity into the twentieth century ; Les Huns, qui ont envahi les gorges de Darial, à la frontière actuelle entre la Russie et la Géorgie, en 395 et 515 après J.-C., ont semé la terreur dans le monde à l'époque de l'Antiquité tardive. Était-ce le prélude à l'apocalypse ? Les prophéties prévoyaient un futur assaut des Huns, via le même col de montagne, provoquant la fin du monde. Le sort de l'humanité dépendait d'une barrière fermée au plus profond de la plus haute et de la plus infranchissable chaîne de montagnes d'Europe. Des siècles avant l'émergence de ces croyances apocalyptiques, les gorges avaient acquis une renommée mondiale. Elles étaient la cible d'une expédition militaire planifiée par l'empereur Néron. Enchaîné aux spectaculaires falaises abruptes qui encadraient l'étroit passage, le mythique voleur de feu Prométhée fut sévèrement puni, son foie étant dévoré par un aigle. Elles étaient connues sous de multiples noms, le plus souvent la Caspienne ou la Porte des Alains. Présent dans les œuvres des classiques littéraires, aucun autre col de montagne dans le monde antique et médiéval n'égale la renommée de la Passe de Darial. Pourtant, on savait peu de choses sur la présence réelle de ce lieu mythique. Une équipe d'archéologues a maintenant fait de nouvelles découvertes sur le fort principal qui bloque la vallée et sur un mur d'enceinte situé sur une crête rocheuse abrupte plus au nord. Les murs qui subsistent encore aujourd'hui ont été construits à l'époque de la première grande invasion hunnique, à la fin du IVe siècle, lorsque les défenses du Caucase ont pris une place de plus en plus importante dans les négociations entre les grandes puissances de Perse et de Rome. Dans son entreprise pour fortifier efficacement le passage stratégique de la montagne à travers le Caucase central, les constructeurs ont effacé la plupart des traces d'une occupation antérieure. Le bastion construit par les Perses a connu une forte occupation pendant 600 ans. Sa garnison médiévale multiconfessionnelle contrôlait le trafic transcaucasien. Les objets de la vie quotidienne et les restes humains révèlent des conditions de vie difficiles et des liens étroits avec le Sud musulman, ainsi qu'avec le monde des steppes du Nord. Les portes de la Caspienne expliquent comment un rocher hautement stratégique a joué un rôle central dans l'histoire du monde, de l'Antiquité classique au XXe siècle

Antiquities. --- Excavations (Archaeology) --- Excavations (Archaeology). --- Dariali (Georgia)

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"Georgia O'Keeffe is arguably the 20th century's leading woman artist. Coming of age along with American modernism, her life was rich in intense relationships --with family, friends, and especially noted photographer Alfred Stieglitz. Her struggle between the rigorous demands of love and work resulted in extraordinary accomplishments. Her often-eroticized flowers, bones, stones, skulls, and pelvises became extremely well known to a broad American public"--

Artists --- Women artists --- O'Keeffe, Georgia,

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Kettle Creek, Battle of, Ga., 1779. --- Battlefields --- Historic sites --- 1779 --- Georgia. --- Georgia

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Georgië is wel vergeleken met de hof van Eden. Maar het vanouds christelijke Kaukasusland bevindt zich op een breukvlak van invloedssferen. Eeuwenlang moest het van meerdere kanten de klappen opvangen en vreemde invasies ondergaan. Romeinen, Perzen, Byzantijnen, Turken en Mongolen richtten er verwoestingen aan. De Georgische ?gouden eeuw?, het culturele en politieke hoogtepunt uit de geschiedenis, ligt bijna een millennium terug. In de negentiende eeuw kwam Georgië onder de Russische keizer. Na de revolutie van 1917 was het korte tijd onafhankelijk, tot de Sovjet-Unie het in 1921 inlijfde. Een Georgiër, Jozef Stalin, was daar tot 1953 de baas. Sinds 1991 is Georgië opnieuw onafhankelijk. Maar Rusland heeft grote moeite met de Westerse oriëntatie van het land en steunt twee etnische minderheden binnen Georgië, de Abchaziërs en Osseten, in hun separatistische koers, ook met militaire middelen.

eu-geor 940 --- Rusland --- cultuurgeschiedenis --- History of Eastern Europe --- Georgia