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2018 (7)

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Dissertation
Hydrological and hydrodynamic flood modelling in Ha Tinh province, Vietnam, under current climate conditions

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Situated on the Indochina peninsula in South-East Asia, Vietnam has to deal with extreme climate conditions and a high intensity of tropical storms. Due to climate change and a growing urbanisation and population, the vulnerability towards flooding is increasing. Since the study catchment of this master thesis Ha Tinh province in Central-Vietnam is located in a low delta area between a mountain region in the west and the South-Chinese sea in the east, flood prevention in this area is extremely urgent. This project is a part of the ongoing WAMADE-project as a cooperation between Vietnam and Belgium. One of the research domains of this project is flood risk mitigation which includes the study of adaption strategies like the implementation of hard buffer structures or natural solutions such as sustainable urban development and the creation of more forest area upstream. The main goal of this master thesis in specific is to identify the areas most sensitive to flooding and quantify the impact, flooded area and depth caused by extreme flood events by creating flood maps with a certain return period. To obtain these maps, improved hydrological, hydrodynamic and flood models will be used. Improving the hydrological model implies the calculation and calibration of NAM-parameters for each subcatchment of the study domain on one hand. On the other hand, the construction of water level sensors and the execution of discharge measurements on a location which is not influenced by tides is necessary as well, in order to obtain more reliable data. The hydrodynamic model is enhanced by implementing hydraulic structures as culverts and weirs. Thirdly, a flood model in the area of Rao Cai river is modelled by implementing flood branches and link channels to connect a flood plain to the corresponding river. Finally, a flood map of an event with a return period of 100 years and 500 years is created by using composite hydrographs of the corresponding return period as input data of the hydrodynamic and flood model. With the aim of controlling the reliability of each model, several validation processes are executed. All models are established and all simulations are carried out using the same software package, MIKE powered by DHI.

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Dissertation
Trees for Global Benefits: the Analysis of a Smallholder PES Project in Uganda

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Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) has become a popular term in nature conservation and ecosystem-based offsetting programmes are probably the most well-known example. Carbon PES projects in developing countries (with typically high deforestation rates) are often linked to poverty alleviation. Smallholder carbon projects are one method to mitigate climate change while at the same time improving the livelihood of the poor. This dual goal entails a trade-off between the technical requirements of the carbon market, the profitability and the needs of the impoverished participants. These factors are reflected in three general concepts often used when describing PES, namely Effectiveness, Equity and Efficiency (3E), which are integrated in the (P)ES cascade. A newly proposed framework is applied to evaluate the Trees for Global Benefits (TGB) project, which is located in Uganda and is one of the largest smallholder carbon projects. This study focusses on the Elgon subregion, where high population pressure has greatly degraded the land and efficacious conservation measures are desperately needed. First, the TGB project is described after which the implementation and outcomes are qualitatively analysed based on this 3E framework. This includes the impact on the environment and livelihoods (effectiveness), the barriers to participate and differences in outcome (equity), and the opportunity cost, payment method and operational costs (effectiveness). Issues are further discussed in a SWOT analysis where the major strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats are identified. Some characteristics attribute to the success of the project like up-front payments, a self-critical attitude, the qualified project manager (ECOTRUST), a large professional network and numerous benefits for the smallholders. Others impede further growth, e.g. deficient buyers, or yield dissatisfaction e.g. inapt communication and low payments. Furthermore the discussion expands on the effect of strengths and weaknesses on opportunities and risks. A number of possibilities are proposed on how the project could incorporate water or biodiversity ES, shift to an insetting scheme or include reforestation practices. Still ECOTRUST needs to take into account the unstable political climate, unpredictable market and competition of similar projects. Strategies are presented to overcome some challenges and build further on good practices. Nonetheless, some characteristics are inherent to smallholder carbon therefore the importance of the carbon market is questioned. It provides an accessible way of attracting buyers but also demands intensive monitoring and verification, causing high operational costs. The way forward is determined on a more fundamental basis, where project types that are able to perform well on two out of three components of the 3E framework are compared. Finally, the strengths of these project types are combined such that major disadvantages are minimalised. An adapted project design with a direct link to investors is hypothesised. This dissertation highlights the lessons learned and the qualities of TGB and concludes with proposing improvements for smallholder carbon projects in general.

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Dissertation
Farmers' preferences for watershed conservation incentives in the Mt. Elgon region, Uganda

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The Mount Elgon region in Eastern Uganda is a vulnerable area where overpopulation, deforestation and unsustainable agriculture are leading to serious degradation of the natural resource base. This has many serious consequences such as soil erosion, floods and even life threatening landslides. Strategies that promote the conservation of ecosystem functions in this area are thus urgently required. Payments for Ecosystem Services (PES) is a novel approach that conserves the environment by rewarding land users for environmentally friendly behaviour. In a PES program beneficiaries of an ecosystem service pay land-users that undertake actions that enhance the supply of this service. The aim of this study is to investigate whether or not PES is a desirable approach for promoting conservation of soils and water in the Mount Elgon region. This is achieved by evaluating past and current PES project, scoping for potential ecosystem service buyers and assessing the preferences of upstream land users for attributes conservation contracts. The results indicate that both from the side of the ecosystem service provider and from the side of the buyer, there is great interest in a PES project for soil and water conservation. At least one possible buyer was identified, namely a local water company whose cost of water treatment would decrease if upstream farmers conserved their soils. Also the upstream land users indicated to be very interested in joining a PES project. Most land-users are well aware of the benefits of soil conservation practices and would like to implement them. However, farmers face several constraints that restrict them from adopting the desired practices. The main barriers are a lack of available land, labour and farm equipment. While most farmers do not require a monetary reward for any of the techniques, we find that farmers who are more land constrained, require a substantial payment for the implementation of a buffer strip of 10-20 m along the river. Farmers prefer to receive the compensation as an individual, rather than as a community, and they are also interested in in-kind rewards of additional farm labour and farming equipment. These results are highly relevant for policy makers that wish to establish a PES project in the study area. Using the insights described above the project can be designed to meet the needs and constraints of the land-users and a sustainable, cost-efficient project can be designed.

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Dissertation
How hot is too hot? Assessment of the Urban Heat Island effect in Ha Tinh, Vietnam

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With more people living in urban than rural areas, urban areas are rapidly increasing. The related increased imperviousness and building densification alter the conditions of the urban environment regarding various climatic variables, including temperature and relative humidity. The phenomenon where temperature tends to be higher in urban areas compared to its surrounding sub-urban and rural areas is also referred to as the ‘urban heat island’ (UHI) effect. This research aims at revealing differentiation in temperature and relative humidity related to the UHI effect among different LCZs. The LCZ concept proved to be a useful framework for differentiating between various parts of the city in a systematic way. The built zones, which are characterized by a higher building density and less vegetation, attain higher temperatures than the land cover zones. However, relative humidity is lower in these LCZs. The degree of variation between the LCZs differs depending on the considered period. Both temperature and relative humidity are important indicators in determining thermal comfort. With the use of psychrometric charts with comfort zone after Givoni (1992) and the Discomfort Index (DI), the thermal conditions in Ha Tinh are evaluated. The recordings of temperature and relative humidity indicate heat stress as moderate to heavy for most of the time. However, compared to the rest of the year, the measurement period is a period with relatively more heat stress. The degree of heat stress is also highly dependent on the considered period and differs among LCZs.

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Dissertation
Ontwikkeling van een open source datalogger systeem

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Milieuproblemen worden alsmaar belangrijker, denk maar aan vervuiling door het verkeer, warmte-eilandeffecten door toenemende urbanisatie, toename van stormen door de klimaatverandering, ... Deze problemen in kaart brengen vergt monitoring aan de hand van dataloggers die omgevingsparameters meten en loggen in het te onderzoeken gebied. Commerciële dataloggers zijn echter vaak nog te duur om op grote schaal in te zetten of te gebruiken in citizen science projecten, waar het budget dikwijls beperkt is. Ook zijn commerciële dataloggers vaak niet flexibel genoeg voor bepaalde projecten door het ontbreken van een netwerkinterface om gegevens draadloos door te sturen. Als oplossing voor deze problemen moest een universeel open source datalogger systeem ontwikkeld worden. Het systeem moest qua functionaliteit vergelijkbaar zijn met commercieel beschikbare datalogger systemen met een netwerkinterface, maar dan (vele malen) goedkoper. Deze thesis bespreekt het ontwerp, de ontwikkeling en het testen van het datalogger systeem. Dit systeem bestaat uit verschillende onderdelen: de dataloggers, één of meer gateways, een data server en een webapplicatie. Iedere datalogger logt via aangesloten sensoren omgevingsparameters. Deze gegevens worden lokaal opgeslagen in een EEPROM en vervolgens draadloos doorgestuurd naar een gateway. De gateway zal de ontvangen gegevens doorsturen naar de data server, waar deze verwerkt en opgeslagen worden in een database. De gateway vormt de connectie tussen het draadloos datalogger netwerk, waar communicatie door middel van de LoRa modulatietechniek gebeurt, en het internet. Via de webapplicatie kan iedere gateway en ieder datalogger netwerk geconfigureerd worden. De webapplicatie laat ook toe de gegevens te downloaden en te visualiseren. De dataloggers zelf kunnen via USB aangesloten worden op een computer. Een computerprogramma kan dan gebruikt worden om de datalogger te configureren en de gegevens in het EEPROM te beheren. Na het ontwerp en de ontwikkeling van het systeem, werden alle onderdelen uitvoerig getest. De belangrijkste test was die van de datalink, waarbij de maximale afstand tussen de dataloggers en de gateway werd nagegaan. Omdat de maximale afstand afhankelijk is van verschillende parameters werden er een aantal bereiktesten uitgevoerd. Tijdens deze testen werd de invloed van het landschap, de radiofrequentie en de hoogte van de gateway antenne nagegaan. Uit de testen bleek dat de hoogte van de gateway antenne een eerste belangrijke beperkingsparameter is. Immers, hoe hoger de gateway, hoe minder objecten het signaal tussen zender en ontvanger verzwakken. Een tweede belangrijke parameter was de radiofrequentie (de testen werden uitgevoerd op twee frequenties: 433,3 MHz en 867,1 MHz). De afstand die overbrugd kon worden op 867,1 MHz was veel groter dan op 433,3 MHz. Een mogelijke verklaring hiervoor is het feit dat de 433 MHz band in België druk bezet is (door radio amateurs, draadloze apparaten, ...). Ook worden de Fresnel Zones groter op een lagere frequentie, waardoor obstakels voor een grotere verzwakking zorgen. De maximale afstand die bereikt werd was 4,2 km. Mogelijk is het maximale bereik van de datalink nog groter, maar vanwege praktische beperkingen was het niet meer mogelijk dit te testen. Hieruit kan besloten worden dat het doel van deze thesis, het ontwerpen en ontwikkelen van een betaalbaar universeel open source datalogger systeem, bereikt is.

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Dissertation
Payments for ecosystem services: an assessment of existing and possible reward mechanisms for ecosystem services in the Pendjari Biosphere Reserve, Benin

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Payments for ecosystem services (PES) have become a well-known concept in the field of nature conservation. The idea is to close the gap between the real value of ecosystem services (ES) to human well-being and the value reflected by conventional markets, which often neglect negative effects of economic activities on ecosystem services. PES projects mainly focus on the protection and restoration of natural resources, but at the same time often linked to poverty alleviation in developing countries. The study area of this thesis concerns the Pendjari biosphere reserve in northern Benin. The riparian population living along two roads bordering the reserve pose a (long-term) threat to the provisioning of several ES. This study checks whether PES schemes can already be identified here and which ES have potential to develop one in the future. First, the local context is sketched based on literature and interviews with local experts. The results are presented coherently using the DPSIR framework. In this way, a cause-effect chain is established for the study area. This is complemented by focus groups organized with local communities, which allowed us to identify the priority ES in the study area. In general, cultivated goods obtained by agriculture are considered the most important. The vast majority of the population also value domestic water and tourism more than other ES. In the next part of this thesis four ES are fully assessed: agriculture, water, tourism and carbon. If possible a rough estimate of the value of the ES is given. Thereafter, all aspects of a PES project concerning improved cooking stoves are evaluated. Our findings indicate, on the one hand, the impressive efficiency of the wood consumption and, on the other hand, the major shortcomings of the project which largely nullify the outcome. Finally, the potential of the four previously mentioned ES is discussed based on all available information. Above all, tourism and carbon seem to have the most potential. Some promising PES chains could be identified and the perspectives for the future look rather good. However, the two ES face great challenges. The long chain between buyers and providers causes problems and is a major disadvantage for carbon PES. Tourism is currently undergoing major changes by the replacement of the park management and the future is uncertain. Our findings suggest that PES schemes are less likely to develop in the field of water and agriculture. Little progress has been made and the PES chains are very local. Agriculture is, moreover, not very suitable for PES according to literature, since it is often an alternative for PES systems.

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Dissertation
Ontwikkeling van een open source datalogger systeem

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Abstract

Milieuproblemen worden alsmaar belangrijker, denk maar aan vervuiling door het verkeer, warmte-eilandeffecten door toenemende urbanisatie, toename van stormen door de klimaatverandering, ... Deze problemen in kaart brengen vergt monitoring aan de hand van dataloggers die omgevingsparameters meten en loggen in het te onderzoeken gebied. Commerciële dataloggers zijn echter vaak nog te duur om op grote schaal in te zetten of te gebruiken in citizen science projecten, waar het budget dikwijls beperkt is. Ook zijn commerciële dataloggers vaak niet flexibel genoeg voor bepaalde projecten door het ontbreken van een netwerkinterface om gegevens draadloos door te sturen. Als oplossing voor deze problemen moest een universeel open source datalogger systeem ontwikkeld worden. Het systeem moest qua functionaliteit vergelijkbaar zijn met commercieel beschikbare datalogger systemen met een netwerkinterface, maar dan (vele malen) goedkoper. Deze thesis bespreekt het ontwerp, de ontwikkeling en het testen van het datalogger systeem. Dit systeem bestaat uit verschillende onderdelen: de dataloggers, één of meer gateways, een data server en een webapplicatie. Iedere datalogger logt via aangesloten sensoren omgevingsparameters. Deze gegevens worden lokaal opgeslagen in een EEPROM en vervolgens draadloos doorgestuurd naar een gateway. De gateway zal de ontvangen gegevens doorsturen naar de data server, waar deze verwerkt en opgeslagen worden in een database. De gateway vormt de connectie tussen het draadloos datalogger netwerk, waar communicatie door middel van de LoRa modulatietechniek gebeurt, en het internet. Via de webapplicatie kan iedere gateway en ieder datalogger netwerk geconfigureerd worden. De webapplicatie laat ook toe de gegevens te downloaden en te visualiseren. De dataloggers zelf kunnen via USB aangesloten worden op een computer. Een computerprogramma kan dan gebruikt worden om de datalogger te configureren en de gegevens in het EEPROM te beheren. Na het ontwerp en de ontwikkeling van het systeem, werden alle onderdelen uitvoerig getest. De belangrijkste test was die van de datalink, waarbij de maximale afstand tussen de dataloggers en de gateway werd nagegaan. Omdat de maximale afstand afhankelijk is van verschillende parameters werden er een aantal bereiktesten uitgevoerd. Tijdens deze testen werd de invloed van het landschap, de radiofrequentie en de hoogte van de gateway antenne nagegaan. Uit de testen bleek dat de hoogte van de gateway antenne een eerste belangrijke beperkingsparameter is. Immers, hoe hoger de gateway, hoe minder objecten het signaal tussen zender en ontvanger verzwakken. Een tweede belangrijke parameter was de radiofrequentie (de testen werden uitgevoerd op twee frequenties: 433,3 MHz en 867,1 MHz). De afstand die overbrugd kon worden op 867,1 MHz was veel groter dan op 433,3 MHz. Een mogelijke verklaring hiervoor is het feit dat de 433 MHz band in België druk bezet is (door radio amateurs, draadloze apparaten, ...). Ook worden de Fresnel Zones groter op een lagere frequentie, waardoor obstakels voor een grotere verzwakking zorgen. De maximale afstand die bereikt werd was 4,2 km. Mogelijk is het maximale bereik van de datalink nog groter, maar vanwege praktische beperkingen was het niet meer mogelijk dit te testen. Hieruit kan besloten worden dat het doel van deze thesis, het ontwerpen en ontwikkelen van een betaalbaar universeel open source datalogger systeem, bereikt is.

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