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This paper systematically reviews the understandings of the concept of the 'Spirit of Sport' as contained in the World Anti-Doping Code.
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A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF THE ETHICAL ARGUMENTS IN THE DEBATES SURROUNDING THE USE OF NEW PROSTHETIC TECHNOLOGIES IN ABLE BODIED ELITE SPORTS.
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The sequencing of the entire genome is a new form of genetic testing which, instead of targeting certain isolated genes, decodes all of an individual’s genes all at once (= his or her genome). This technology is advancing rapidly and its costs are decreasing, which suggests that it could soon displace conventional testing. This is not without a certain number of problems which are ethical (because geneticists will be faced with information they did not request) and also organisational and financial in nature. How can this technological advancement be integrated into Belgian healthcare? Who will be able to request these analyses? Who will have enough expertise to interpret their results? How and by whom will they be communicated to the patient? How will the management and security of the resultant gigabytes of results be organised? And of course, how will this be financed? In order to be able to explore the responses to these different issues in an unhurried fashion, we recommended that the complete genome sequencing technology be introduced as a first step in the form of a pilot project, which would enable the problems to be tackled one by one with the parties concerned, and various solutions to be tested – and assessed! – before making definitive decisions which will set our country on the path of this decidedly futuristic technology.
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The model of direct to consumer companies (DTC), in which genetic tests are being advertised and/or sold to the public, outside of the traditional health care approach, have raised scientific, regulatory and ethical debates. Through the years, health-research sponsored by companies like 23andMe, alone or in collaboration with other stakeholders, has increasingly become an important part of their activity, with a recent shift to studies that search for new drug targets. In this study, we explored why patients that are consumers of 23andMe, engage in research related activities sponsored by this company. We performed thematic analysis of YouTube videos posted either by the company or personal bloggers, that included testimonies of research participation related to chronic diseases. Several themes emerged from our analysis: research contribution, expectation of benefits, empowerment and community engagement. Our data give insight about what drives patient participation in DTC genetic test (DTCGT) research platforms. We discuss these motivations in light of 23andMe recruitment and consent practices.
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Deze masterproef betreft een kwalitatief onderzoek met als doel de mening van vertegenwoordigers van patiëntenorganisaties, werkzaam rond genetische aandoeningen, te bevragen omtrent dragerschapsscreening. Deze screening laat toe dragerschap te identificeren voor meerdere genetische aandoening tegelijk. Door de technologische evolutie kan dit tegenwoordig tegen een ‘aanvaardbare’ prijs. De screening kan bepalen of een koppel drager is van dezelfde ziekteverwekkende mutatie. Aangezien dragers vaak geen symptomen tonen, wordt dragerschap vaak pas ontdekt nadat één van de kinderen geboren wordt met een erfelijke aandoening. Als beide partners drager blijken van een recessieve mutatie, is er 25% kans bij elke zwangerschap dat hun kind geboren wordt met de aandoening. Bij de X-gebonden aandoeningen is er bij elke zwangerschap van een jongen 50% kans dat het kind de aandoening ontwikkelt. Koppels met een kinderwens, die drager zijn, kunnen opteren voor alternatieve reproductieve opties (bijvoorbeeld adoptie). Aan de hand van tien semigestructureerde diepte-interviews met dertien vertegenwoordigers van zes geselecteerde patiëntenorganisaties werd getracht om hun mening omtrent een eventuele systematische aanbieding van dragerschapsscreening in België in kaart te brengen. De keuze voor patiëntenorganisaties is ingegeven door het feit dat deze een belangrijke stakeholder zijn en dat hun vertegenwoordigers de problematiek doorgaans goed kennen. De gecontacteerde organisaties zijn allen werkzaam rond specifieke genetische aandoeningen die mogelijks, in de toekomst, opgenomen worden in een screeningspanel. De data uit de interviews werden via een inductieve inhoudsanalyse geanalyseerd. Uit de resultaten blijkt dat de meningen bij de respondenten verdeeld zijn; met zowel duidelijke voor- als tegenstanders. De meeste vertegenwoordigers hadden voor het interview nog nooit van dragerschapsscreening gehoord. Het belangrijkste argument pro is de geïnformeerde reproductieve keuzemogelijkheden. Ernstige aandoeningen waarvoor gescreend kan worden, zijn onbehandelbare en levensbedreigende aandoeningen die op korte termijn fataal zijn en/of die de levenskwaliteit sterk beperken. De respondenten uiten ook vele bezorgdheden; o.a. over de kostprijs van de screening, het garanderen van een vrije keuze, de mogelijks verminderde aandacht voor patiënten, het voorkomen van stigmatisatie en problemen met de verzekeringen. Verder werd aangegeven dat de screening aangeboden dient te worden door de overheid en dat zowel individuen als koppels de kans moeten krijgen zich te laten screenen. De doelgroep (de populatie op reproductieve leeftijd) dient goed geïnformeerd te worden door competente personen; huisartsen en gynaecologen blijken het meest aangewezen. Daarnaast dienen individuen/koppels die (beiden) drager zijn ook de nodige psychologisch begeleiding te krijgen. Tot slot dient, bij het implementeren van het programma, rekening gehouden te worden met de mening van de belanghebbende patiëntenorganisaties. De bevindingen uit de interviews komen in grote lijnen overeen met deze uit de literatuur. Meningen omtrent screening kunnen, zelfs binnen dezelfde organisatie, sterk van persoon tot persoon verschillen. Verder onderzoek is nodig om ook de opinie van andere belanghebbende actoren (zoals wetenschappers en beleidsmakers) in kaart te brengen. De verworven inzichten moeten toelaten om dragerschapsscreening op een degelijk onderbouwde wijze (eventueel) te implementeren.
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Various companies are currently selling genetic tests directly to consumers. The range of direct-to-consumer (DTC) tests available is broad, from preconceptional carrier tests for single-gene disorders to genetic association tests for predisposition to complex, multifactorial diseases. The general objective of this research project is to study ethical, legal and social issues related to DTC genetic testing. The research project will study through an innovative research approach the ethical problems that DTC companies raise in real life. Based on interviews with clinicians that provided genetic counselling to consumers that ordered DTC genetic tests, we will study the impact of DTC genetic testing on clinical genetics services and on individual consumers. Through the analysis of the legal frameworks, we will study the current limitations or absence of barriers on the operation of these companies in Europe. Through this combination of perspectives this research project will make it possible to move beyond the state of the art in the debate on the responsible and effective translation of genome-based knowledge and technologies for the benefit of the individual and population health.
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The last decades, genetics became more important in the diagnosis of several cancer syndromes, especially for Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer syndrome and Lynch Syndrome. Being diagnosed with a genetic syndrome does not only affect the patient but also his relatives who could be at risk as well. Disclosing this information is usually not a problem, but some patients do not inform their relatives about their genetic risk. To analyse the reasons for non-disclosure by cancer patients, we performed a systematic search in PubMed and Web of Science for all the possible articles that could contain reasons for non-disclosure. After applying the inclusion criteria there were 40 articles remaining which we analysed by inductive content analysis. Various reasons made patients decide not to inform their at-risk relatives. We divided them in three categories: reasons relating to the individual himself, the relative at risk and reasons relating to the family. The most important reasons for non-disclosure are that patients do not want to cause anxiety or stress in their family and that there is a distant relationship with their relatives. It is important for health care professionals to know what these reasons are, so they can try to convince their patients to disclose and help them informing their at-risk family members.
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Healthcare professionals may consider breaching patient confidentiality in order to warn their relatives about their risk of developing a genetic disorder, if a patient refuses to share this information. We systematically searched two databases (Pubmed and Web of Science) to obtain guidelines, recommendations, points to consider, position statements and policy papers which address breach of confidentiality. We also searched humgen.org, the websites of ethical committees and other professional bodies in the field, and the bibliographies of relevant literature reviews. We included 29 articles from one international organization, one region and ten countries. We performed inductive content analysis, which resulted in the identification of four main categories and in a number of subcategories: (1) The overarching recommendations, which vary between documents from breaching confidentiality is never permitted, to breaching confidentiality may be permitted under certain conditions, and with some documents not taking a clear position; (2) Encouraging voluntary sharing of genetic information to relatives, including informing patients about the need to share pretest, and also encouraging the proband to share posttest; (3) The reasons for and against breaching confidentiality, which are approached from the perspectives of the patient, their relatives, and the healthcare professional; (4) The conditions, under which breaches of confidentiality are appropriate, which can be related to the disease, the relatives, the nature of the information, or to the strategy of breaching confidentiality. Permission to breach confidentiality under certain conditions seems to have become more commonly accepted. However, breaching confidentiality should not become the rule. It should remain as an exception.
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