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Analysis of household expenditure surveys since 2008 in 22 Sub-Saharan African countries shows that one-third of all people use electricity. As expected, users are disproportionately urban and rich. In communities with access to electricity, lack of affordability is the greatest barrier to household connection. Lifeline rates enabling the poor to use grid electricity vary in availability, with six countries allowing 30 kilowatt-hours or less of electricity usage a month at low prices. Affordability challenges are aggravated by sharing of meters by several households -- denying them access to lifeline rates -- and high connection costs in many countries, made worse by demands from utility staff for bribes in some countries. Collection of detailed information on residential schedules enabled calculation of the percentage of total household expenditures needed for electricity at the subsistence and other levels. Affordability varied across countries, with grid electricity even at the subsistence level being out of reach for the poor in half the countries and even more so once connection charges are considered. Examination of the gender of the head of household shows that female-headed households are not disadvantaged in electricity use once income and the place of residence (urban or rural) are taken into account. However, female-headed households tend to be poorer, making it all the more important to focus on helping the poor for the goal of achieving universal access. Installing individual meters and subsidizing installation, encouraging prepaid metering so as to avoid disconnection and reconnection charges, reformulating lifeline blocks and rates as appropriate, and stamping out corruption to eliminate bribe-taking can all help the poor.

Electrification.

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This paper estimates the welfare impact of rural electrification in India using nationally representative household panel survey data for 2005 and 2012. Analysis based on a propensity-score-weighted fixed-effects model finds that while electrification is associated with a broad range of social and economic benefits, the size of the effects depends importantly on the reliability of electricity service. Gaining access to electricity combined with a reliable power supply is associated with a 17 percent increase in income during the sample period, but gaining access to electricity alone is associated with only a 9.6 percent increase in income. The net gain from both increasing the access rate and reducing power outages in rural India is estimated to be USD 11 billion a year. Moreover, India's rural electrification policy appears to be progressive because lower-income households benefit more from access to electricity than higher-income households during the sample period.

Distributional Impact --- Quantile Regression --- Reliability Of Electricity --- Rural Electrification

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The manual begins with a description of the concept and aims of the shield wire scheme (SWS). The scheme is applicable for minimum cost power supply from the grid to villages, small towns, farms, factories, and water pumping stations located near or at some distance from the route of the high-voltage (HV), 110 to 330 kV, transmission lines (TLs). The SWS is a solution for rural electrification that is not economically justifiable with conventional solutions, which are long medium-voltage (MV) lines routed along the HV TLs or dedicated HV/MV transformer stations. SWSs consist of the following: Insulating the shield wires (SWs) from the towers of the HV TL for MV operation (20 to 34.5 kV). Energizing the SWs at MV from the HV/MV transformer station at one end of the HV TL. Using the earth return of current as an MV distribution conductor. Supplying the loads by means of medium-voltage/low-voltage (MV/LV) distribution transformers connected between the SWs and the ground.

Electric Power --- Energy --- Energy Policies & Economics --- Energy Trade --- Rural Development --- Rural Electrification --- Rural Energy --- Rural Services and Infrastructure

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This thesis aims at developing, optimizing and controling a hybrid solar microgrid for rural electrification and heat supply in sub-Saharan Africa. The considered system includes PV, Parabolic Trough Collectors, Organic Rankine Cycle and LPG generator, as well as chemical battery storage and thermal energy storage. The work focuses on multiple aspects of the ongoing development of solar hybrid microgrids for the rural electrification of remote areas in Lesotho. These aspects range from very specific improvements (the mechanical design of a high expansion ratio expander) to the more global evaluation of their impact once included into a complex micro-grid system. Special attention has also been paid to the links between thermal and electrical demands.

The main contributions of this thesis are:
- The mechanical design of a high expansion ratio scroll expander, involving drawing, machining and assembly of the parts. 
- The detailed model of an organic Rankine cycle with the purpose of evaluating the improvement brought by the high expansion ratio scroll expander and mapping the ORC performance.
- A building model developed to predict the thermal loads of a health clinic in rural communities of Lesotho. The developed lumped-parameter model can be used for various building typologies and communities. The model is designed to be as generic and simple as possible, and contrasts with the data-intensive models generally proposed in the literature.
- The gathering of monitoring and weather data relative to a health clinic in Lesotho, and their use for the calibration of the building model.
- A microgrid model built by interconnecting all of its subcomponent models. A rule-based control strategy is developed, accounting for interactions between thermal and electrical loads, and dispatching heat and power flows of each component in order to cover the demand while minimizing the fuel consumption.
- A particle-swarm optimization model used to optimize the microgrid under different cost assumptions and control strategies

The above models prove that the system performs better with the developed high expansion ratio expander. The maximum output power of the ORC is increased by 33 %, and the fuel consumption of the microgrid is reduced by 25 %.

For the studied community of Ha Nkau in Lesotho, the determined optimal system infrastructure is composed of PV (65 kW) and batteries (259 kWh) only, and the optimum control strategy achieves a levelized cost of electricity of 0.202 USD/kWh. Fuel consumption is mainly due to the burner, which supplies all the thermal load because no other heating system is selected by the optimization.

modeling --- optimization --- microgrid --- rural electrification --- ORC --- scroll expander --- heat supply --- control --- rule based control --- Lesotho --- Ingénierie, informatique & technologie > Energie

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A framework for monitoring the effects and evaluating comprehensive benefits of demand response programs is proposed in this guide. From perspectives of ex-ante and ex-post evaluation, this guide introduces the evaluation processes on demand response effects with its comprehensive benefits and implemented calculation methods in detail. This guide could be applied in various electricity market structures to provide utilities with the references for the planning, design, implementation, and post-evaluation of demand response programs.

Electric power distribution --- Electricity --- Power distribution, Electric --- Electric power systems --- Power transmission --- Electric power transmission --- Electrification --- Standards. --- Distribution --- Electric power distribution.