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The use of prebiotics and probiotics has increased a lot in recent years. According to current studies, they have some beneficial health effects on diseases or their symptoms, including diarrhea and atopic dermatitis. These effects are dependent on the strain, the dose and they are even more effective when administered early in the course of the disease or the apparition of the symptom.However, the mechanisms of action of these food supplements are multiple and there aren’t yet fully elucidated. My survey revealed that 6 out of 10 children have already received probiotics and almost half of them received probiotics for the first time before the age of 1year. Their main use is for infectious or antibiotic-associated diarrhea, which corresponds to what is found in the literature. Prebiotics and probiotics are a safe therapeutic choice because they cause few side effects. Therefore, they represent a goof alternative to pharmacological treatments for a number of diseases or symptoms affecting children. However, current studies involve mostly adults. It would be interesting to extend these studies to the field of childhood, which would confirm the indications discussed in this work. L'utilisation de prébiotiques et probiotiques est en augmentation depuis quelques années. Les études actuelles leur attribuent des effets bénéfiques sur la santé pour agir sur certaines maladies ou leurs symptômes, notamment la diarrhée et la dermatite atopique. Ces effets sont dépendants de la souche, de la dose et d'autant plus efficaces qu'ils sont administrés en début d'évolution de la maladie ou d'apparition du symptôme. Toutefois, les mécanismes d'action de ces compléments alimentaires sont multiples et ils ne sont pas encore entièrement élucidés.Mon enquête révèle que 6 enfants sur 10 ont déjà reçu des probiotiques et que près de la moitié d'entre eux en ont reçu pour la première fois avant l'âge de 1 an. Leur utilisation principale se fait pour la diarrhée infectieuse ou associée aux antibiotiques, ce qui correspond à ce que l'on trouve dans la littérature.Les prébiotiques et probiotiques constituent un choix thérapeutique sûr car ils engendrent peu d'effets secondaires. Ils représentent donc une bonne alternative aux traitements pharmacologiques pour un certain nombre de maladies ou symptômes touchant les enfants.Cependant, les études actuelles concernent le plus souvent l'adulte. Il serait intéressant d'étendre ces recherches au domaine de l'enfance, ce qui permettrait de confirmer les indications abordées dans ce travail.

Prebiotics --- Probiotics --- Child

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The innate immune system has evolved means to recognize and react suitably to foreign entities such as infectious agents. In many cases infectious microorganisms threaten the integrity and function of the target organs or tissues; therefore, consequent to their recognition the immune system becomes activated to ensure their elimination. Toll-like receptors (TLR) constitute a family of receptors specialized in the recognition of molecular patterns typically associated with infectious agents. Different TLRs exist, each selective for molecular entities and motifs belonging to a specific pathogen group. Consequently, it is thought that the molecular nature of invading microorganisms activates specific TLRs to drive adequate anti-infectious immunity. For instance, nucleic acid-specific, intracellular receptors (TLR3/7/8/9) are used to sense viruses and drive antiviral immunity, while other receptors (such as TLR2 and TLR4) recognize and promote immunity against bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Yet, it is becoming evident that activation of TLR pathways trigger mechanisms that not only stimulate but also regulate the immune system. For instance, TLR stimulation by viruses will drive antiviral interferon but also immunoregulatory cytokine production and regulatory T cell activation. Stimulation of TLRs by bacteria or using molecular agonists can also trigger both immune stimulatory and regulatory responses. TLR stimulation by infectious agents likely serves to activate but also control anti-infectious immunity, for instance prevent potential immunopathological tissue damage which can be caused by acute immune defense mechanisms. Previous work by us and others has shown that the immunoregulatory arm of TLR stimulation can additionally help control autoreactive processes in autoimmune disease. Hence, it is becoming established that gut commensals, which also play a crucial part in the control of autoimmune disease, establish immune regulatory mechanisms through activation of particular TLRs. In sum, it appears that TLRs are key immune players that not only stimulate but also regulate immune processes in health and disease. In this Research Topic, we wish to review the dual role of TLRs as activators and regulators of immune responses. We aim to motivate data-driven opinions as to the importance of context of TLR agonism for determining immune activation vs. regulation. The presentation of ongoing original works, as well as data and opinions around other innate immune receptors pertaining to this topic, are also encouraged.

Infection --- Toll-Like Receptors --- Probiotics --- Immune stimulation --- Immunoregulation --- Autoimmune Diseases --- cancer immunotherapy --- Inflammation --- microbiome --- tolerance

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The innate immune system has evolved means to recognize and react suitably to foreign entities such as infectious agents. In many cases infectious microorganisms threaten the integrity and function of the target organs or tissues; therefore, consequent to their recognition the immune system becomes activated to ensure their elimination. Toll-like receptors (TLR) constitute a family of receptors specialized in the recognition of molecular patterns typically associated with infectious agents. Different TLRs exist, each selective for molecular entities and motifs belonging to a specific pathogen group. Consequently, it is thought that the molecular nature of invading microorganisms activates specific TLRs to drive adequate anti-infectious immunity. For instance, nucleic acid-specific, intracellular receptors (TLR3/7/8/9) are used to sense viruses and drive antiviral immunity, while other receptors (such as TLR2 and TLR4) recognize and promote immunity against bacteria, yeast, and fungi. Yet, it is becoming evident that activation of TLR pathways trigger mechanisms that not only stimulate but also regulate the immune system. For instance, TLR stimulation by viruses will drive antiviral interferon but also immunoregulatory cytokine production and regulatory T cell activation. Stimulation of TLRs by bacteria or using molecular agonists can also trigger both immune stimulatory and regulatory responses. TLR stimulation by infectious agents likely serves to activate but also control anti-infectious immunity, for instance prevent potential immunopathological tissue damage which can be caused by acute immune defense mechanisms. Previous work by us and others has shown that the immunoregulatory arm of TLR stimulation can additionally help control autoreactive processes in autoimmune disease. Hence, it is becoming established that gut commensals, which also play a crucial part in the control of autoimmune disease, establish immune regulatory mechanisms through activation of particular TLRs. In sum, it appears that TLRs are key immune players that not only stimulate but also regulate immune processes in health and disease. In this Research Topic, we wish to review the dual role of TLRs as activators and regulators of immune responses. We aim to motivate data-driven opinions as to the importance of context of TLR agonism for determining immune activation vs. regulation. The presentation of ongoing original works, as well as data and opinions around other innate immune receptors pertaining to this topic, are also encouraged.

Infection --- Toll-Like Receptors --- Probiotics --- Immune stimulation --- Immunoregulation --- Autoimmune Diseases --- cancer immunotherapy --- Inflammation --- microbiome --- tolerance --- Infection --- Toll-Like Receptors --- Probiotics --- Immune stimulation --- Immunoregulation --- Autoimmune Diseases --- cancer immunotherapy --- Inflammation --- microbiome --- tolerance

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This book describes in vitro and ex vivo models that can be employed to investigate effects of digested food products on the GIT, or specific components thereof. Many such models exist and include, for example, those used to study digestion and fermentation in the small and large intestine, to investigate absorption (e.g. Ussing chamber, epithelial cell systems), and to research the immune and enteroendocrine responses (e.g. macrophages, dendritic cells, co-cultures). In each case, these respective assays and models are discussed, and tips and tricks concerning their proper use are given. The Impact of Food Bioactives on Health: In Vitro and Ex Vivo Models is an asset to researchers wishing to study the health benefits of their foods and food bioactives of interest. The book highlights which in vitro/ex vivo assays are of greatest relevance to their goals, what sort of outputs/data can be generated, and highlights the strengths and weaknesses of the various assays. It is also an important resource for under-graduate students in the ‘food and health’ arena.

Life Sciences. --- Food Microbiology. --- Food Science. --- Human Physiology. --- Life sciences. --- Human physiology. --- Food science. --- Sciences de la vie --- Physiologie humaine --- Food --- Microbiology. --- Biotechnology. --- Gastrointestinal system --- Digestion. --- Bioactive compounds. --- Biologically active compounds --- Compounds, Bioactive --- Compounds, Biologically active --- Compounds, Physiologically active --- Physiologically active compounds --- Food biotechnology --- Biotechnology --- Genetically modified foods --- Chemicals --- Physiology --- Indigestion --- Nutrition --- Prebiotics --- Probiotics --- Microbiology. --- Human biology --- Medical sciences --- Human body --- Science --- Foods --- Dinners and dining --- Home economics --- Table --- Cooking --- Diet --- Dietaries --- Gastronomy --- Sanitary microbiology --- Bacteriology --- Food—Biotechnology. --- Microbial biology --- Biology --- Microorganisms