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Off balance sheet financing --- Asset-backed financing --- Disclosure in accounting --- Financial Accounting Standards Board.

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The magnitude of the public liabilities incurred as a result of the unprecedented government action in the wake of the financial crisis of 2008-2009, and the consequences of exiting from the projected high debt scenario, have become a major source of concern about a future sovereign debt crisis. As Low-Income Countries (LICs) face unique challenges in debt management (DeM) due to their more limited financing sources and higher capacity constraints, their ability to successfully manage their public debt burdens effectively through a crisis of this magnitude is far from assured. Therefore, the challenges of the last two years will require a re-evaluation of existing DeM strategies in LICs, focusing on the identification of institutional weaknesses and the assessment and mitigation of potential risk. It is in this context that this paper examines the application of two global public goods in LICs: the Debt Management Performance Assessment (DeMPA) and the Medium-Term Debt Management Strategy (MTDS) tools. The results of the application of these tools from 2007-2009 provide valuable information to policymakers and other stakeholders on the development of sound public DeM practices and analytical capacity, with the goal of strengthening the public balance sheet and reducing vulnerability to financial crises.

Access to Finance --- Balance sheet --- Banks & Banking Reform --- Capacity constraints --- Captive investor --- Creditor --- Debt --- Debt burdens --- Debt crisis --- Debt management --- Debt Markets --- Developing countries --- Developing country --- Emerging Markets --- External Debt --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Financial crises --- Financial crisis --- Government debt --- International bank --- International Economics and Trade --- Monetary fund --- Portfolios --- Private Sector Development --- Public borrowing --- Public debt --- Public debt management --- Sovereign debt

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Land assets have become an important source of financing capital investments by subnational governments in developing countries. Land assets, often with billions of dollars per transaction, rival and sometimes surpass subnational borrowing or fiscal transfers for capital spending. While reducing the uncertainty surrounding future debt repayment capacity, the use of land-based revenues for financing infrastructure can entail substantial fiscal risks. Land sales often involve less transparency than borrowing. Many sales are conducted off-budget, which makes it easier to divert proceeds into operating budgets. Capital revenues from sales of land assets exert a much more volatile trend and could create an incentive to appropriate auction proceeds for financing the operating budget, particularly in times of budget shortfalls during economic downturns. Furthermore, land collateral and expected future land-value appreciation for bank loans can be linked with macroeconomic risks. It is critical to develop ex ante prudential rules comparable to those governing borrowing, to reduce fiscal risks and the contingent liabilities associated with the land-based revenues for financing infrastructure.

Accounting --- Asset management --- Balance sheet --- Balance sheets --- Banks & Banking Reform --- Borrowing --- Capital budgets --- Debt --- Debt Markets --- Finance and Financial Sector Development --- Land development --- Land prices --- Land supply --- Local governments --- Municipal Financial Management --- Operating expenses --- Potential exposure --- Present value --- Public & Municipal Finance --- Public enterprises --- Public Sector Development --- Public Sector Economics --- Regulatory framework --- Subnational finance --- Subnational government finance --- Subnational governments --- Systemic risk --- Urban Development

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"Roughly a billion people around the world continue to live in state of chronic hunger and food insecurity. Unfortunately, efforts to improve their livelihoods must now unfold in the context of a rapidly changing climate, in which warming temperatures and changing rainfall regimes could threaten the basic productivity of the agricultural systems on which most of the world’s poor directly depend. But whether climate change represents a minor impediment or an existential threat to development is an area of substantial controversy, with different conclusions wrought from different methodologies and based on different data. This book aims to resolve some of the controversy by exploring and comparing the different methodologies and data that scientists use to understand climate’s effects on food security. In explains the nature of the climate threat, the ways in which crops and farmers might respond, and the potential role for public and private investment to help agriculture adapt to a warmer world. This broader understanding should prove useful to both scientists charged with quantifying climate threats, and policy-makers responsible for crucial decisions about how to respond. The book is especially suitable as a companion to an interdisciplinary undergraduate or graduate level class. "This book provides a much needed analysis of the interactions between climate change and the food system, with emphasis on how food security is likely to be affected and interventions needed to adapt to a warmer world." Per Pinstrup-Andersen, Cornell University, New York, USA."--Publisher.

Environment. --- Climate Change. --- Agriculture. --- Earth Sciences, general. --- Sustainable Development. --- Environmental sciences. --- Geography. --- Climatic changes. --- Sustainable development. --- Sciences de l'environnement --- Géographie --- Agriculture --- Climat --- Développement durable --- Changements --- Food supply --- Environmental aspects. --- Economic aspects. --- Agriculture -- Environmental aspects. --- Climatic changes -- Environmental aspects. --- Food supply -- Economic aspects. --- Climatic changes --- Agriculture - General --- Earth & Environmental Sciences --- Environmental aspects --- Economic aspects --- Food security. --- Food deserts --- Food insecurity --- Insecurity, Food --- Security, Food --- Changes, Climatic --- Climate change --- Climate changes --- Climate variations --- Climatic change --- Climatic fluctuations --- Climatic variations --- Global climate changes --- Global climatic changes --- Climate change. --- Earth sciences. --- Climate Change Management and Policy. --- Human security --- Climatology --- Climate change mitigation --- Teleconnections (Climatology) --- Changes in climate --- Climate change science --- Global environmental change --- climate change. --- farming sector. --- crop production. --- environmental impact. --- food security. --- potravinové zabezpečení --- toiduga kindlustatus --- pārtikas nodrošinājums --- sigurnost opskrbe hranom --- sigurtà tal-ikel --- securitate alimentară --- voedselzekerheid --- prehranska varnost --- Ernährungssicherheit --- sécurité alimentaire --- élelmezésbiztonság --- безбедност на храна --- potravinová bezpečnosť --- seguridad alimentaria --- bezpieczeństwo żywnościowe --- fødevareforsyningssikkerhed --- slándáil bhia --- aprūpinimo maistu saugumas --- sicurezza alimentare --- продоволствена сигурност --- επισιτιστική ασφάλεια --- segurança alimentar --- ruokaturva --- livsmedelstrygghet --- nedostatek potravin --- az élelmiszerellátás stabilitása --- disponibilidade de alimentos --- fødevareudnyttelse --- stabilnost opskrbe hranom --- inseguridad alimentaria --- utilización de los alimentos --- zapewnienie dostępu do żywności --- utilização dos alimentos --- piekļuve pārtikai --- Zugang zu Nahrungsmitteln --- pārtikas trūkums --- Verfügbarkeit von Nahrungsmitteln --- Stabilität der Nahrungsmittelversorgung --- elintarvikkeiden käyttö --- apsirūpinimas maistu --- élelmiszerek felhasználása --- stabilnost preskrbe s hrano --- az élelmiszer-ellátás bizonytalansága --- użu tal-ikel --- voedselonzekerheid --- stabilitatea aprovizionării cu alimente --- stabilus maisto tiekimas --- insegurança alimentar --- stabilità dell'approvvigionamento alimentare --- élelmiszer-hasznosítás --- ruoan saatavuus --- stabilita dodávek potravin --- využívanie potravín --- продоволствена несигурност --- insécurité alimentaire --- stabilność dostaw żywności --- disponibbiltà tal-ikel --- prístup k potravinám --- zabezpečení potravin --- razpoložljivost hrane --- potravinová neistota --- bizonytalan élelmiszer-ellátás --- sécurité alimentaire quantitative --- insecuritate alimentară --- az élelmiszerhez való hozzáférés --- fødevareusikkerhed --- food insecurity --- stabilność zaopatrzenia w żywność --- stabilité de l’approvisionnement alimentaire --- nuqqas ta’ sigurtà tal-ikel --- elintarvikeketjun vakaus --- aprūpinimas maistu --- fødevaretilgængelighed --- zanesljiva preskrba s hrano --- aċċess għall-ikel --- suffisance alimentaire --- pārtikas nodrošinājuma trūkums --- pārtikas lietošana --- stabbiltà tal-provvista tal-ikel --- disponibilidad de alimentos --- access to food --- πρόσβαση σε τρόφιμα --- élelmiszer-hozzáférés --- disponibilité alimentaire --- acces la alimente --- dostęp do żywności --- pārtikas izmantošana --- disponibilitatea alimentelor --- nepietiekams pārtikas nodrošinājums --- accesso al cibo --- neustrezna prehranska varnost --- utilizarea alimentelor --- varnost preskrbe s hrano --- estabilidad del abastecimiento en alimentos --- stability of food supply --- dostupnost hrane --- pārtikas apgādes stabilitāte --- επισιτιστική ανασφάλεια --- χρήση τροφίμων --- brak bezpieczeństwa żywnościowego --- estabilidade do abastecimento alimentar --- dostępność żywności --- beschikbaarheid van voedsel --- stabilita dodávok potravín --- elintarvikkeiden saatavuus --- izkoristek hrane --- използване на храните --- elintarviketurva --- élelmiszerekhez való hozzáférés --- slándáil an tsoláthair bia --- pārtikas pieejamība --- nesigurnost opskrbe hranom --- zajištění potravin --- tápanyag-felhasználás --- σταθερότητα του εφοδιασμού με τρόφιμα --- insicurezza alimentare --- puutteellinen elintarviketurva --- dostop do hrane --- διαθεσιμότητα τροφίμων --- wykorzystanie żywności --- acesso a alimentos --- přístup k potravinám --- élelemhez való hozzáférés --- food utilisation --- suficiência alimentar --- sufficienza alimentare --- toidujulgeolek --- достъп до храна --- pristup hrani --- toegang tot voedsel --- стабилност на снабдяването с храни --- pārtikas nepietiekamība --- dostupnosť potravín --- az élelmiszer rendelkezésre állása --- disponibilità di cibo --- puutteellinen ruokaturva --- stabiliteit van de voedselvoorziening --- stabilitet af fødevareforsyning --- adgang til fødevarer --- manglende fødevaresikkerhed --- food availability --- наличност на храна --- tryggad livsmedelsförsörjning --- dostupnost potravin --- upotreba hrane --- Lebensmittelverwendung --- acceso a los alimentos --- vliv na životní prostředí --- invloed op het milieu --- impatt ambjentali --- tionchar ar an gcomhshaol --- επίπτωση στο περιβάλλον --- влијание врз животната средина --- ndikim në mjedis --- vpliv na okolje --- impact sur l'environnement --- impacto ambiental --- ympäristövaikutus --- ietekme uz vidi --- környezeti hatás --- poveikis aplinkai --- utjecaj na okoliš --- miljöpåverkan --- impatto ambientale --- impact asupra mediului --- Auswirkung auf die Umwelt --- miljøindvirkning --- keskkonnamõju --- wpływ na środowisko --- ekologický dosah --- въздействие на околната среда --- утицај на животну средину --- balanço ecológico --- miljöavtryck --- ekoloģiskais novērtējums --- ekobalancë --- ecobalanço --- effetti sull'ambiente --- vides pēdas nospiedums --- keskkonnajalajälg --- mer --- miljökonsekvensbeskrivning --- ślad środowiskowy --- aplinkosauginis pėdsakas --- miljøopgørelse --- vlerësim ekologjik --- ekološka procjena --- huella ambiental --- miljøvurdering --- balance ecológico --- efect ambiental --- effet environnemental --- περιβαλλοντικό αποτύπωμα --- milieueffect --- vides novērtējums --- Umweltverträglichkeitsprüfung --- еколошки ефект --- miljøvirkning --- ökológiai mérleg --- écobilan --- milieuvoetafdruk --- ecological assessment --- efecto sobre el medio ambiente --- environmental assessment --- impronta ambientale --- vides ietekmēšana --- környezetihatás-tanulmány --- avaliação ambiental --- Verträglichkeitsprüfung --- ökológiai vizsgálat --- ekologinis balansas --- impronta ambjentali --- indvirkning på miljøet --- miljøbelastning --- bilanț ecologic --- effect on the environment --- conséquence sur l'environnement --- environmental footprint --- environmentálna stopa --- ecologische balans --- evaluare ecologică --- bilan écologique --- milieueffectrapport --- conséquence environnementale --- effekt på miljön --- Umweltwirkung --- efekt mjedisor --- miljöanalys --- еколошко влијание --- ympäristöarvio --- συνέπεια στο περιβάλλον --- mõju keskkonnale --- miljøaftryk --- effet sur l'environnement --- evaluación medioambiental --- valutazione dell'impatto ambientale --- επίδραση στο περιβάλλον --- Umweltimpakt --- bilancio ecologico --- оценка на влијанието врз животната средина --- environmental effect --- ekoloģiskā bilance --- ekologinis įvertinimas --- tionchar comhshaoil --- amprentă de mediu --- ökologische Bilanz --- efekti mbi mjedis --- οικολογικός ισολογισμός --- отпечатък върху околната среда --- okoljski odtis --- miljöbedömning --- ecobilancio --- empreinte environnementale --- eco-balance --- incidence environnementale --- lorg comhshaoil --- vaikutus ympäristöön --- environmentálny vplyv --- effett ambjentali --- incidence sur l'environnement --- efect asupra mediului --- konsekvenser for miljøet --- efeito no meio ambiente --- ekotase --- keskkonnamõju hindamine --- ympäristöjalanjälki --- Impaktstudie --- EIA --- virkning på miljøet --- vplyv na životné prostredie --- environmentální stopa --- Umweltbilanz --- ecobalance --- környezeti lábnyom --- pasqyrë ekologjike --- hodnocení vlivů na životní prostředí --- miljøstatus --- inverkan på miljön --- Umweltimpaktstudie --- évaluation environnementale --- ekologický vliv --- pegada ambiental --- evaluare de mediu --- aplinkos įvertinimas --- ecological balance sheet --- környezetihatás-vizsgálat --- keskkonnahinnang --- ekobilance --- ekologinen tase --- περιβαλλοντική αξιολόγηση --- vlerësim mjedisor --- ökotasakaal --- UVP --- Ökobilanz --- pestovanie plodín --- Pflanzenbau --- растителна продукция --- növénytermesztés --- rostlinná výroba --- augalininkystė --- producción vegetal --- prodhim i të lashtave --- производство на земјоделски култури --- produkcja roślinna --- rastlinska proizvodnja --- produção vegetal --- vegetabilieproduktion --- φυτική παραγωγή --- biljna proizvodnja --- augkopība --- taimekasvatustoodang --- production végétale --- vegetabilsk produktion --- биљна производња --- cultura plantelor --- kasvituotanto --- produzione vegetale --- plantaardige productie --- produzzjoni tal-għelejjel --- táirgeadh barr --- produit végétal --- prodotto vegetale --- φυτικό προϊόν --- Pflanzenkultur --- vegetabilsk produkt --- producto vegetal --- plantaardig produkt --- växtprodukt --- plantekultur --- termény --- plant product --- növényi kultúra --- coltivazione delle piante --- cultivo vegetal --- augu produkts --- rostlinný produkt --- odling av plantor --- augalininkystės produktas --- kasvituote --- φυτική καλλιέργεια --- moltiplicazione vegetale --- producția plantelor --- coltivazione vegetale --- cultura vegetal --- φυτοκαλλιέργεια --- produkt bimësh --- растително органско производство --- производство на растителни култури --- culture végétale --- cultivo de plantas --- plantenteelt --- pflanzliche Erzeugung --- rastlinný produkt --- cultura das plantas --- culture des plantes --- taimne saadus --- pflanzliches Produkt --- plantaardig product --- növényi termék --- växtodling --- coltura vegetale --- agrární sektor --- settur tal-koltivazzjoni --- rolnictwo --- земјоделски сектор --- kmetijski sektor --- lauksaimniecības sektors --- settore agricolo --- setor agrícola --- agrárny sektor --- maatalousala --- sector agrario --- põllumajandussektor --- пољопривредни сектор --- Agrarsektor --- landbrugssektor --- sector agricol --- jordbrukssektor --- земеделски сектор --- poljoprivredni sektor --- landbouwsector --- secteur agricole --- sektor fermer --- γεωργικός τομέας --- earnáil na feirmeoireachta --- žemės ūkio sektorius --- mezőgazdasági szektor --- maatalous --- агрикултура --- Landwirtschaft --- poljoprivreda --- poľnohospodárstvo --- zemědělství --- γεωργία --- sektori bujqësor --- agrárágazat --- poľnohospodársky sektor --- mezőgazdaság --- landbouw --- lauksaimniecība --- bujqësia --- landbrug --- lauksaimniecības nozare --- agricultura --- agricoltura --- agriculture --- žemės ūkis --- земјоделство --- agrarni sektor --- zemědělský sektor --- sector agrícola --- agricultură --- agricultural sector --- ganadería --- аграрен сектор --- põllumajandus --- sector agropecuario --- agrárszektor --- полјоделство --- cambio climático --- klimatska promjena --- tibdil fil-klima --- промена климе --- klimatförändring --- alteração climática --- kliimamuutus --- sprememba podnebja --- климатска промена --- zmiany klimatyczne --- changement climatique --- промяна на климата --- cambiamento climatico --- schimbare climatică --- ndryshim klimaterik --- změna klimatu --- klimata maiņa --- éghajlatváltozás --- zmena podnebia --- klimato kaita --- athrú aeráide --- klimaatsverandering --- Klimaveränderung --- ilmastonmuutos --- klimaændring --- κλιματική αλλαγή --- az éghajlat változása --- modificación del clima --- klimatiskā izmaiņa --- промена на климата --- klimatická změna --- klimatická zmena --- climatic change --- schimbări climatice