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Why do vote-suppression efforts sometimes fail? Why does police repression of demonstrators sometimes turn localized protests into massive, national movements? How do politicians and activists manipulate people's emotions to get them involved? The authors of Why Bother? offer a new theory of why people take part in collective action in politics, and test it in the contexts of voting and protesting. They develop the idea that just as there are costs of participation in politics, there are also costs of abstention - intrinsic and psychological but no less real. That abstention can be psychically costly helps explain real-world patterns that are anomalies for existing theories, such as that sometimes increases in costs of participation are followed by more participation, not less. The book draws on a wealth of survey data, interviews, and experimental results from a range of countries, including the United States, Britain, Brazil, Sweden, and Turkey.

Political participation --- Voter turnout --- Voting --- Voting research --- Protest movements --- Abstention --- Political aspects --- Political sociology --- Political participation. --- Voter turnout. --- Voting research. --- Abstention. --- Political aspects.

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Although there is a widespread belief that uneven voter turnout leads to biased outcomes in American democracy, existing empirical tests have found few effects. By offering a systematic account of how and where turnout matters in local politics, this book challenges much of what we know about turnout in America today. It demonstrates that low and uneven turnout, a factor at play in most American cities, leads to sub-optimal outcomes for racial and ethnic minorities. Low turnout results in losses in mayoral elections, less equitable racial and ethnic representation on city councils, and skewed spending policies. The importance of turnout confirms long held suspicions about the under-representation of minorities and raises normative concerns about local democracy. Fortunately, this book offers a solution. Analysis of local participation indicates that a small change to local election timing - a reform that is cost effective and relatively easy to enact - could dramatically expand local voter turnout.

Local elections --- Voting --- Municipal government --- Cities and towns --- City government --- Municipal administration --- Municipal reform --- Municipalities --- Urban politics --- Local government --- Metropolitan government --- Municipal corporations --- County elections --- Elections, County --- Elections, Local --- Elections, Municipal --- Municipal elections --- Election law --- Elections --- Citizen participation. --- Government --- Law and legislation --- Voter turnout --- Election turnout --- Turnout (Voting) --- Voting turnout --- Social Sciences --- Political Science

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Voting is a habit. People learn the habit of voting, or not, based on experience in their first few elections. Elections that do not stimulate high turnout among young adults leave a 'footprint' of low turnout in the age structure of the electorate as many individuals who were new at those elections fail to vote at subsequent elections. Elections that stimulate high turnout leave a high turnout footprint. So a country's turnout history provides a baseline for current turnout that is largely set, except for young adults. This baseline shifts as older generations leave the electorate and as changes in political and institutional circumstances affect the turnout of new generations. Among the changes that have affected turnout in recent years, the lowering of the voting age in most established democracies has been particularly important in creating a low turnout footprint that has grown with each election.

Voter turnout --- Political participation --- Democracy --- Election turnout --- Turnout (Voting) --- Voting turnout --- Voting --- Citizen participation --- Community action --- Community involvement --- Community participation --- Involvement, Community --- Mass political behavior --- Participation, Citizen --- Participation, Community --- Participation, Political --- Political activity --- Political behavior --- Political rights --- Social participation --- Political activists --- Politics, Practical --- History --- Polls --- Elections --- Social choice --- Suffrage --- Vote --- Participation politique --- Démocratie --- Histoire --- Political sociology --- Political systems --- anno 1900-1999 --- anno 2000-2009 --- Social Sciences --- Political Science

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Most theories of elections assume that voters and political actors are fully rational. While these formulations produce many insights, they also generate anomalies--most famously, about turnout. The rise of behavioral economics has posed new challenges to the premise of rationality. This groundbreaking book provides a behavioral theory of elections based on the notion that all actors--politicians as well as voters--are only boundedly rational. The theory posits learning via trial and error: actions that surpass an actor's aspiration level are more likely to be used in the future, while those that fall short are less likely to be tried later. Based on this idea of adaptation, the authors construct formal models of party competition, turnout, and voters' choices of candidates. These models predict substantial turnout levels, voters sorting into parties, and winning parties adopting centrist platforms. In multiparty elections, voters are able to coordinate vote choices on majority-preferred candidates, while all candidates garner significant vote shares. Overall, the behavioral theory and its models produce macroimplications consistent with the data on elections, and they use plausible microassumptions about the cognitive capacities of politicians and voters. A computational model accompanies the book and can be used as a tool for further research.

Elections. --- Voting --- Behaviorism (Political science) --- Behavioralism (Political science) --- Behaviouralism (Political science) --- Behaviourism (Political science) --- Political psychology --- Polls --- Elections --- Politics, Practical --- Social choice --- Suffrage --- Electoral politics --- Franchise --- Political science --- Plebiscite --- Political campaigns --- Representative government and representation --- Psychological aspects. --- Political systems --- Social psychology --- Condorcet winner. --- Downsian party competition. --- Duverger's Law. --- Markov chain. --- Pareto dominance. --- adaptation. --- aspiration-based adaptation. --- aspiration-based adaptive rule. --- aspiration-based adjustment. --- aspirations. --- bandwagon effect. --- behavior. --- behavioral theory. --- bounded rationality. --- candidates. --- computational model. --- decision making. --- election voting. --- elections. --- equilibrium behavior. --- faction size. --- framing. --- game-theoretic model. --- hedonics. --- heuristics. --- incumbent. --- majority faction. --- multiparty elections. --- parties. --- party affiliation. --- party competition. --- payoffs. --- platforms. --- political parties. --- politicians. --- population size. --- propensity. --- rational choice theory. --- rational choice. --- rationality. --- retrospective voting. --- satisficing. --- search behavior. --- stochastic process. --- turnout. --- two-party elections. --- voter choice. --- voter coordination. --- voter participation. --- voter turnout. --- voters. --- Balloting

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"Over the last half century, there has been a marked increase in ideological conservatism among African Americans, with nearly 50% of black Americans describing themselves as conservative in the 2000s, as compared to 10% in the 1970s. Support for redistributive initiatives has likewise declined. And yet, even as black Americans shift rightward on ideological and issue positions, Democratic Party identification has stayed remarkable steady, holding at 80% to 90%. It is this puzzle that White and Laird look to address in this new book: Why has ideological change failed to push black Americans into the Republican party? Most explanations for homogeneity have focused on individual dispositions, including ideology and group identity. White and Laird acknowledge that these are important, but point out that such explanations fail to account for continued political unity even in the face of individual ideological change and of individual incentives to defect from this common group behavior. The authors offer instead, or in addition, a behavioral explanation, arguing that black Americans maintain political unity through the establishment and enforcement of well-defined group expectations of black political behavior through a process they term racialized social constraint. The authors explain how black political norms came about, and what these norms are, then show (with the help of survey data and lab-in-field experiments) how such norms are enforced, and where this enforcement happens (through a focus on black institutions). They conclude by exploring the implications of the theory for electoral strategy, as well as explaining how this framework can be used to understand other voter communities"--

African Americans --- Group identity --- Party affiliation --- Collective identity --- Community identity --- Cultural identity --- Social identity --- Identity (Psychology) --- Social psychology --- Collective memory --- Politics and government. --- Political aspects --- Democratic Party (U.S.) --- Demokratische Partei (U.S.) --- Partai Demokrat (U.S.) --- Republican Party (U.S. : 1792-1828) --- African American Studies. --- Barack Obama. --- Black Visions. --- Cathy Cohen. --- Civil Rights Movement. --- Michael Dawson. --- The Boundaries of Blackness. --- black Democrats. --- black Republicans. --- black identity. --- black political behavior. --- black political decision making. --- black social networks. --- electoral strategy. --- enforcement of group norms. --- group identity. --- group norms. --- individual disposition. --- partisanship identification. --- party defection. --- party loyalty. --- political behavior. --- political ideology. --- race and ethnic politics. --- racialized social pressure. --- self-interest vs. group-interest. --- social constraint. --- switching party identification. --- voter turnout. --- voting behavior. --- voting patterns. --- POLITICAL SCIENCE --- Party affiliation. --- Affiliation, Party --- Political affiliation --- Political parties --- Political Process --- Political Parties. --- Political aspects. --- Membership --- United States. --- AB --- ABSh --- Ameerika Ühendriigid --- America (Republic) --- Amerika Birlăshmish Shtatlary --- Amerika Birlăşmi Ştatları --- Amerika Birlăşmiş Ştatları --- Amerika ka Kelenyalen Jamanaw --- Amerika Qūrama Shtattary --- Amerika Qŭshma Shtatlari --- Amerika Qushma Shtattary --- Amerika (Republic) --- Amerikai Egyesült Államok --- Amerikanʹ Veĭtʹsėndi͡avks Shtattn --- Amerikări Pĕrleshu̇llĕ Shtatsem --- Amerikas Forenede Stater --- Amerikayi Miatsʻyal Nahangner --- Ameriketako Estatu Batuak --- Amirika Carékat --- AQSh --- Ar. ha-B. --- Arhab --- Artsot ha-Berit --- Artzois Ha'bris --- Bí-kok --- Ē.P.A. --- EE.UU. --- Egyesült Államok --- ĒPA --- Estados Unidos --- Estados Unidos da América do Norte --- Estados Unidos de América --- Estaos Xuníos --- Estaos Xuníos d'América --- Estatos Unitos --- Estatos Unitos d'America --- Estats Units d'Amèrica --- Ètats-Unis d'Amèrica --- États-Unis d'Amérique --- Fareyniḳṭe Shṭaṭn --- Feriene Steaten --- Feriene Steaten fan Amearika --- Forente stater --- FS --- Hēnomenai Politeiai Amerikēs --- Hēnōmenes Politeies tēs Amerikēs --- Hiwsisayin Amerikayi Miatsʻeal Tērutʻiwnkʻ --- Istadus Unidus --- Jungtinės Amerikos valstybės --- Mei guo --- Mei-kuo --- Meiguo --- Mî-koet --- Miatsʻyal Nahangner --- Miguk --- Na Stàitean Aonaichte --- NSA --- S.U.A. --- SAD --- Saharat ʻAmērik --- SASht --- Severo-Amerikanskie Shtaty --- Severo-Amerikanskie Soedinennye Shtaty --- Si͡evero-Amerikanskīe Soedinennye Shtaty --- Sjedinjene Američke Države --- Soedinennye Shtaty Ameriki --- Soedinennye Shtaty Severnoĭ Ameriki --- Soedinennye Shtaty Si͡evernoĭ Ameriki --- Spojené obce severoamerick --- Spojené staty americk --- SShA --- Stadoù-Unanet Amerika --- Stáit Aontaithe Mheirice --- Stany Zjednoczone --- Stati Uniti --- Stati Uniti d'America --- Stâts Unîts --- Stâts Unîts di Americhe --- Steatyn Unnaneysit --- Steatyn Unnaneysit America --- SUA --- Sŭedineni amerikanski shtati --- Sŭedinenite shtati --- Tetã peteĩ reko Amérikagua --- U.S. --- U.S.A. --- United States of America --- Unol Daleithiau --- Unol Daleithiau America --- Unuiĝintaj Ŝtatoj de Ameriko --- US --- USA --- Usono --- Vaeinigte Staatn --- Vaeinigte Staatn vo Amerika --- Vereinigte Staaten --- Vereinigte Staaten von Amerika --- Verenigde State van Amerika --- Verenigde Staten --- VS --- VSA --- Wááshindoon Bikéyah Ałhidadiidzooígí --- Wilāyāt al-Muttaḥidah --- Wilāyāt al-Muttaḥidah al-Amirīkīyah --- Wilāyāt al-Muttaḥidah al-Amrīkīyah --- Yhdysvallat --- Yunaeted Stet --- Yunaeted Stet blong Amerika --- ZDA --- Združene države Amerike --- Zʹi͡ednani Derz͡havy Ameryky --- Zjadnośone staty Ameriki --- Zluchanyi͡a Shtaty Ameryki --- Zlucheni Derz͡havy --- ZSA --- Political sociology --- United States