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Despite recent improvements in female labor force participation, women remain underrepresented in STEM fields in Japan. Given the close link between STEM workers and innovation, encouraging women to pursue STEM careers could boost growth potential. Using a calibrated endogenous growth model with STEM talent, this paper quantifies the potential gains from eliminating barriers to STEM fields among women. The findings suggest that bridging the gender gap in STEM fields can boost TFP growth by 20 percent and consumption-equivalent welfare by 4 percent in Japan.
Capacity --- Capital and Total Factor Productivity --- Cost --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Economics of Gender --- Gender diversity --- Gender inequality --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Income economics --- Industrial productivity --- Innovation and Invention: Processes and Incentives --- Intellectual Property Rights --- International agencies --- International Agreements and Observance --- International Economics --- International institutions --- International organization --- International Organizations --- Labor Discrimination --- Labor Discrimination: Public Policy --- Labor market --- Labor markets --- Labor --- Labour --- Macroeconomics --- Monetary economics --- Monetary Policy --- Monetary policy --- Money and Monetary Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- One, Two, and Multisector Growth Models --- Production and Operations Management --- Production --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Total factor productivity --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies --- Japan
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This paper considers various dimensions and sources of gender inequality and presents policies and best practices to address these. With women accounting for fifty percent of the global population, inclusive growth can only be achieved if it promotes gender equality. Despite recent progress, gender gaps remain across all stages of life, including before birth, and negatively impact health, education, and economic outcomes for women. The roadmap to gender equality has to rely on legal framework reforms, policies to promote equal access, and efforts to tackle entrenched social norms. These need to be set in the context of arising new trends such as digitalization, climate change, as well as shocks such as pandemics.
India --- Sex discrimination in employment. --- Economic development. --- Gender equality. --- India. --- Women in development. --- Women''s Studies'. --- Gender Studies. --- Wage Level and Structure. --- Wage Differentials. --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy. --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy. --- Labor Discrimination. --- Economic Development: Human Resources. --- Human Development. --- Income Distribution. --- Migration. --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences. --- Diffusion Processes. --- Economics of Gender. --- Non-labor Discrimination. --- Health: General. --- Education: General. --- women & girls. --- Social discrimination & equal treatment. --- Gender studies, gender groups. --- Health economics. --- Education. --- Women. --- Gender inequality. --- Gender. --- Health. --- Sex discrimination. --- Sex role. --- Diffusion Processes --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Economics of Gender --- Education --- Education: General --- Gender inequality --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Health economics --- Health --- Health: General --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Labor Discrimination --- Migration --- Mobility, Unemployment, and Vacancies: Public Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Technological Change: Choices and Consequences --- Wage Differentials --- Wage Level and Structure --- Wages, Compensation, and Labor Costs: Public Policy --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies
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Greater gender diversity of the IMF’s Executive Board continues to be important to strengthen decision-making at the highest levels of the institution by bringing together different perspectives. Increasing the number of women Executive Directors and Alternate Executive Directors sends important signals about the high value the membership and the IMF place on improving diversity and to generate better outcomes. Despite the IMFC’s calls for increased gender diversity of the Executive Board, the number of women holding the position of Executive Director and Alternate Executive Director on the Executive Board has not substantially improved over time.1 It is a great concern that the proportion of women on the Executive Board has declined in recent years, as shown in the attached updated Fact Sheet.
Economics of Gender --- Economics --- Gender diversity --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Monetary economics --- Monetary Policy --- Monetary policy --- Money and Monetary Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Political Economy --- Political economy --- Sex role --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies
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The benefits of gender diversity are well known – it increases effectiveness and efficiency and strengthens decision-making. Yet, the IMF Executive Board continues to fall short of reaching gender balance, with women constituting a small minority of the Executive Directors and Alternate Executive Directors. There is a clear need for change. The IMFC has called on the membership to take action, including by introducing voluntary medium-term objectives to raise the number of women holding leadership positions at the Board. This report summarizes the Executive Board’s recommendations for these targets and lays out proposals for concerted actions that can be taken by individual countries and constituencies.
Economics of Gender --- Economics --- Gender diversity --- Gender Studies --- Gender studies --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender --- Monetary economics --- Monetary Policy --- Monetary policy --- Money and Monetary Policy --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Political Economy --- Political economy --- Sex role --- Women & girls --- Women --- Women's Studies
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This paper shows that during the 1990s, and before the 1998-2000 border war with Eritrea, the gender gap in education in Eritrea has widened on the national level, and large regional disparities have persisted. The gender gap appears to be linked to lower female teacher participation and limited employment opportunities. The widening of the gender gap is likely to have a long-term negative impact on both economic growth and poverty reduction.
Labor --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Labor Discrimination --- Education: Government Policy --- Welfare and Poverty: Other --- Education: General --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Human Capital --- Skills --- Occupational Choice --- Labor Productivity --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Health: General --- Education --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Labour --- income economics --- Health economics --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Human capital --- Gender --- Health --- Sex discrimination --- Economic theory --- Eritrea, The State of --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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Japan's potential growth rate is steadily falling with the aging of its population. This paper explores the extent to which raising female labor participation can help slow this trend. Using a cross-country database we find that smaller families, higher female education, and lower marriage rates are associated with much of the rise in women's aggregate participation rates within countries over time, but that policies are likely increasingly important for explaining differences across countries. Raising female participation could provide an important boost to growth, but women face two hurdles in participating in the workforce in Japan. First, few working women start out in career-track positions, and second, many women drop out of the workforce following childbirth. To increase women’s attachment to work Japan should consider policies to reduce the gender gap in career positions and to provide better support for working mothers.
Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Labor Economics Policies --- Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure --- Time Allocation and Labor Supply --- Labor Discrimination --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Economics: General --- Education: General --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Labour --- income economics --- Education --- Women --- Labor markets --- Labor economics --- Labor market --- Economic theory --- Japan --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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Japan's potential growth rate is steadily falling with the aging of its population. This paper explores the extent to which raising female labor participation can help slow this trend. Using a cross-country database we find that smaller families, higher female education, and lower marriage rates are associated with much of the rise in women's aggregate participation rates within countries over time, but that policies are likely increasingly important for explaining differences across countries. Raising female participation could provide an important boost to growth, but women face two hurdles in participating in the workforce in Japan. First, few working women start out in career-track positions, and second, many women drop out of the workforce following childbirth. To increase women’s attachment to work Japan should consider policies to reduce the gender gap in career positions and to provide better support for working mothers.
Women --- Employment --- Human females --- Wimmin --- Woman --- Womon --- Womyn --- Females --- Human beings --- Femininity --- E-books --- Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Labor Economics Policies --- Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure --- Time Allocation and Labor Supply --- Labor Discrimination --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Economics: General --- Education: General --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Labour --- income economics --- Education --- Labor markets --- Gender --- Labor force --- Labor economics --- Labor market --- Economic theory --- Japan --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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This paper examines the macroeconomic interaction between informality and gender inequality in the labor market. A dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model is built to study the impact of gender-targeted policies on female labor force participation, female formal employment, gender wage gap, as well as on aggregate economic outcomes. The model is estimated using Bayesian techniques and Indian data. Although these policies are found to increase female labor force participation and output, lack of sufficient formal job creation due to labor market rigidities leads to an increase in unemployment and informality, and further widens gender gaps in formal employment and wages. Simultaneously implementing such policies with formal job creating policies helps remove these adverse impacts while also leading to significantly larger gains in output.
Labor market --- Sex discrimination in employment --- Women --- Employees --- Market, Labor --- Supply and demand for labor --- Markets --- Employment --- Supply and demand --- Macroeconomics --- Economics --- E-books --- Labor --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Informal Economy --- Underground Econom --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Discrimination --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Labor Economics: General --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Labour --- income economics --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Gender inequality --- Labor markets --- Labor supply --- Gender diversity --- Gender --- Sex discrimination --- Sex role --- Labor economics --- India --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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Both Japan and Korea are trying to boost female labor force participation (FLFP) as they face the challenges of a rapidly aging population. Though FLFP has generally been on a rising trend, the female labor force in both countries is skewed towards non-regular employment despite women’s high education levels. This paper empirically examines what helps Japan and Korea to increase FLFP by type (i.e., regular vs. non-regular employment), using the SVAR model. In so doing, we compare these two Asian countries with two Nordic countries Norway and Finland. The main findings are: (i) child cash allowances tend to reduce the proportion of regular female employment in Japan and Korea, (ii) the persistent gender wage gap encourages more non-regular employment, (iii) a greater proportion of regular female employment is associated with higher fertility, and (iv) there is a need for more public spending on childcare for age 6-11 in Japan and Korea to help women continue to work.
Labor supply -- Japan. --- Unemployed -- Japan. --- Women --Employment -- Japan. --- Labor --- Macroeconomics --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Labor Economics Policies --- Fertility --- Family Planning --- Child Care --- Children --- Youth --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Force and Employment, Size, and Structure --- Labor Discrimination --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Labor Economics: General --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Women --- Gender inequality --- Labor force --- Gender --- Economic theory --- Sex discrimination --- Labor economics --- Labor market --- Japan --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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Gender gaps in womens’ economic opportunities—labor market and entrepreneurship—have remained high in India. Lack of adequate collateral limits women entrepreneurs’ ability to access formal finance, leaving them to rely on informal sources, constraining their growth. A small-open economy DSGE model is built to investigate the long-run macroeconomic impacts from closing gender gaps in financial access. Results suggest that an increase in women entrepreneurs access to formal credit results in higher female entrepreneurship and employment, which boosts India’s output by 1.6 percent. However, regulations and gender-specific constraints in the labor market limit potential gains as females’ access to quality jobs in the formal sector remains restricted. The paper shows that the factors influencing the number of females are different from those influencing the share of females in formal economic activity. Combining gender-targeted financial inclusion policies with policies that lower constraints on formal sector employment could boost India’s output by 6.8 percent.
Labor --- Women''s Studies' --- Gender Studies --- Employment --- Unemployment --- Wages --- Intergenerational Income Distribution --- Aggregate Human Capital --- Aggregate Labor Productivity --- Informal Economy --- Underground Econom --- Economics of Gender --- Non-labor Discrimination --- Labor Discrimination --- Economic Development: Human Resources --- Human Development --- Income Distribution --- Migration --- Demand and Supply of Labor: General --- Labor Demand --- Labour --- income economics --- Gender studies --- women & girls --- Social discrimination & equal treatment --- Gender studies, gender groups --- Women --- Labor markets --- Gender inequality --- Self-employment --- Gender diversity --- Gender --- Labor market --- Sex discrimination --- Self-employed --- Sex role --- India --- Income economics --- Women & girls --- Women's Studies
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