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Gamma radiation has been discovered since more than a century and contributed in many achievements in human life. Continuous developments make it necessary to have more understandings and more discussions about well-established concepts as well as newly implemented hypothesis and applications of gamma rays. This book presents new visions of gamma ray spectrometry and applications. I hope this book can present part of the useful applications of gamma rays.

Gamma rays. --- Gamma radiation --- Electromagnetic waves --- Ionizing radiation --- Physical Sciences --- Engineering and Technology --- High Energy Physics --- Nuclear Physics --- Physics

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It is common believe that the centers of all galaxies exhibit supermassive black holes with masses ranging from millions up to billions of the mass of our Sun. By accreting surrounding matter, the luminosity of these galactic nuclei can outshine the emission of their host galaxies. If this is the case, they are called active galactic nuclei. Some of these objects eject powerful outflows composed of plasma, called jets. These jets can produce non-thermal radiation which observable across the entire electromagnetic spectrum from radio up to the gamma-ray frequencies. At highest frequencies (TeV range) most of the detected active galaxies have jets directed along or close to the line of sight. However, also galaxies with larger angles to the line of sight showing fascinating features were discovered, in seeming contradiction to traditional models for these so-called radio galaxies. Thus, the latter are of particular importance for understanding active galactic nuclei in general. This Special Issue contains reviews and research articles about the current knowledge of radio galaxies at TeV energies, including observational results and theoretical models. It is intended to guide the interested reader deeper into this fascinating discipline of modern day astronomy.

radiation mechanisms: non-thermal --- emission: non-thermal --- 3C 84 --- radio galaxies --- TeV ?-rays --- X-rays: binaries --- general relativity --- jets --- Centaurus A --- light curve --- particle acceleration --- galaxies: active --- discrete correlation function --- relativistic processes ISM: jets and outflows --- VLBA --- origin: jet --- stars: black holes --- GeV ?-rays --- galaxies: jets --- magnetohydrodynamics --- active galactic nuclei --- radio galaxy --- origin: black hole --- TeV emission --- radio interferometry --- gamma-rays --- gamma-rays: observation --- gamma-rays: theory --- active galactic nucleus

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This volume celebrates the 30th anniversary of the first very-high energy (VHE) gamma-ray Source detection: the Crab Nebula, observed by the pioneering ground-based Cherenkov telescope Whipple, at teraelectronvolts (TeV) energies, in 1989. As we entered a new era in TeV astronomy, with the imminent start of operations of the Cherenkov Telescope Array (CTA) and new facilities such as LHAASO and the proposed Southern Wide-Field Gamma-ray Observatory (SWGO), we conceived of this volume as a broad reflection on how far we have evolved in the astrophysics topics that dominated the field of TeV astronomy for much of recent history.In the past two decades, H.E.S.S., MAGIC and VERITAS pushed the field of TeV astronomy, consolidating the field of TeV astrophysics, from few to hundreds of TeV emitters. Today, this is a mature field, covering almost every topic of modern astrophysics. TeV astrophysics is also at the center of the multi-messenger astrophysics revolution, as the extreme photon energies involved provide an effective probe in cosmic-ray acceleration, propagation and interaction, in dark matter and exotic physics searches. The improvement that CTA will carry forward and the fact that CTA will operate as the first open observatory in the field, mean that gamma-ray astronomy is about to enter a new precision and productive era.This book aims to serve as an introduction to the field and its state of the art, presenting a series of authoritative reviews on a broad range of topics in which TeV astronomy provided essential contributions, and where some of the most relevant questions for future research lie.

Research & information: general --- Mathematics & science --- gamma ray astronomy --- imaging atmospheric Cherenkov technique --- TeV gamma-rays --- non-thermal radiation --- keV-TeV cosmic sources --- INTEGRAL legacy data base --- relativistic astrophysics --- gamma rays --- cosmic rays --- interstellar medium --- Milky Way --- galaxies --- radiation mechanisms: non-thermal --- high energy astrophysics --- background radiation --- photon–photon interaction --- pair production --- axion-like particles --- gamma-rays --- IACTs --- intergalactic magnetic fields --- high-energy gamma rays --- electromagnetic cascades --- pevatrons --- Galactic cosmic rays --- PeVatron --- Crab Nebula --- angular resolution --- energy spectral distribution --- γ-ray astronomy --- very-high-energy gamma-ray astrophysics --- astroparticle physics --- imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes --- Quantum Gravity --- Lorentz invariance violation --- time of flight --- modified photon interactions --- very-high-energy gamma-ray astronomy --- open science --- data format --- multi-messenger --- real-time --- high-energy --- alerts --- very-high-energy γ-ray astronomy --- atmospheric Cherenkov telescopes --- source catalogues --- gamma-ray astronomy --- Cherenkov telescopes --- ISM: supernova remnants --- ISM: individual objects—Crab Nebula --- pulsars: general --- radiation mechanisms: nonthermal --- gamma rays: general --- acceleration of particles --- astrophysical plasmas --- MHD --- high-energy gamma-ray astrophysics --- Gamma-ray bursts --- non-thermal emission --- radiative processes --- very-high energy Gamma-rays --- statistical analysis --- likelihood --- bayes --- imaging atmospheric Cherenkov telescope --- IACT --- IACT technology --- very high energy gamma-ray telescope --- ground-based gamma-ray astrophysics --- n/a --- photon-photon interaction --- ISM: individual objects-Crab Nebula

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X-ray diffractometry (XRD), a nondestructive technique, is an essential scientific tool capable of supplying users with fundamental data and information unobtainable by other techniques, and exhibits increasing usages and attracts intensive attention in modern science and technology. The complete cognition of many potentialities of XRD, however, requires an elementary knowledge of crystallography and X-ray science. Admittedly, certain routine applications of X-ray diffraction demand only little or no familiarity with this field, but most researchers want to go beyond these push-button applications and to use various techniques as powerful aids in both pure and applied research. This e-book aims at: (1) revealing theories and applicable skills of the novel two-dimensional and three dimensional (2D/3D) X-ray diffractometry for the structure characterization of material by providing an intuitive understanding of the description of instruments and methods, as well as a set of general mathematical models; (2) bridging present gaps between the basic texts and the specialist works.Based on asymmetrical-Bragg diffraction geometry which contains basic elements, a set of universal mathematical model has been built up, where two equations on the desired azimuth angle and a common scan mode are included.Compared with the previous literature, unique characters of this technique are: (1) multifunction; (2) simplicity of measurement; (3) depth/azimuth-resolved X-ray patterns for coatings; (4) texture measurement (rather than in the pole-figure method); and (5) profile analysis for size-strain broadening (not in the fitted - profile method). In addition, by reading the corresponding chapters it is possible to obtain many applications in five main fields.This book presented by Professor Cong Q.Z. et al provides a broad overview of 2D and 3D X-ray diffractometry and addresses the aforementioned points. Chapters written in respective fields enable the reader to be acquainted with a variety of topics ranging from the fingerprint characterization of crystalline materials to the determination of polycrystalline structure. The book is particularly useful to basic investigators, undergraduates, postgraduates,workers and experts interested in the latest advances in this exciting field.

Radiography, Industrial. --- X-rays --- X-rays. --- X-ray crystallography. --- Diffraction. --- Crystallography --- Rays, Roentgen --- Roentgen rays --- Roentgenograms --- Electromagnetic waves --- Ionizing radiation --- Radiation --- Cathode rays --- Radiography --- Vacuum-tubes --- Diffraction --- Industrial radiography --- Materials --- Radiographic examination of materials --- Radiology, Industrial --- Gamma rays --- Nondestructive testing --- Radioisotopes --- Industrial applications

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Research on radiation-tolerant electronics has increased rapidly over the past few years, resulting in many interesting approaches to modeling radiation effects and designing radiation-hardened integrated circuits and embedded systems. This research is strongly driven by the growing need for radiation-hardened electronics for space applications, high-energy physics experiments such as those on the Large Hadron Collider at CERN, and many terrestrial nuclear applications including nuclear energy and nuclear safety. With the progressive scaling of integrated circuit technologies and the growing complexity of electronic systems, their susceptibility to ionizing radiation has raised many exciting challenges, which are expected to drive research in the coming decade. In this book we highlight recent breakthroughs in the study of radiation effects in advanced semiconductor devices, as well as in high-performance analog, mixed signal, RF, and digital integrated circuits. We also focus on advances in embedded radiation hardening in both FPGA and microcontroller systems and apply radiation-hardened embedded systems for cryptography and image processing, targeting space applications.

single event effects --- n/a --- radiation-hardening-by-design (RHBD) --- frequency divider by two --- single event upset --- Image processing --- CMOS analog integrated circuits --- FPGA --- total ionizing dose (TID) --- Impulse Sensitive Function --- soft error --- hardening by design --- radiation hardening by design --- X-rays --- Single-Event Upsets (SEUs) --- line buffer --- heavy ions --- VHDL --- FPGA-based digital controller --- radiation hardening by design (RHBD) --- radiation hardening --- SRAM-based FPGA --- proton irradiation --- ring oscillator --- sensor readout IC --- fault tolerance --- space application --- physical unclonable function --- voltage controlled oscillator (VCO) --- Ring Oscillators --- analog single-event transient (ASET) --- single event opset (SEU) --- SEB --- single event upsets --- bipolar transistor --- total ionizing dose --- protons --- triple modular redundancy (TMR) --- gain degradation --- space electronics --- saturation effect --- configuration memory --- Co-60 gamma radiation --- total ionization dose (TID) --- frequency synthesizers --- CMOS --- PLL --- TDC --- single-event upsets (SEUs) --- bandgap voltage reference (BGR) --- 4MR --- single-shot --- error rates --- Radiation Hardening by Design --- soft errors --- heavy-ions --- single-event effects (SEE) --- single event transient (SET) --- SEE testing --- proton irradiation effects --- RFIC --- single event upset (SEU) --- FMR --- ionization --- radiation tolerant --- triplex–duplex --- neutron irradiation effects --- digital integrated circuits --- single event gate rupture (SEGR) --- power MOSFETs --- ring-oscillator --- selective hardening --- voltage reference --- nuclear fusion --- TMR --- gamma-rays --- gamma ray --- instrumentation amplifier --- radiation effects --- reference circuits --- radiation-hardened --- triplex-duplex