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TB is considered as one of the oldest documented infectious diseases in the world and is believed to be the leading cause of mortality due to a single infectious agent. Mtb, the causative agent responsible for TB, continues to afflict millions of people worldwide. Furthermore, one-third of the entire world's population has latent TB. Consequently, there has been a worldwide effort to eradicate and limit the spread of Mtb through the use of antibiotics. However, management of TB is becoming more challenging with the emergence of drug-resistant and multi-drug resistant strains of Mtb. Furthermore, when administered, many of the anti-TB drugs commonly present severe complications and side effects. Novel approaches to enhance the host immune responses to completely eradicate Mtb infection are urgently needed. This Special Issue will therefore cover most recent advances in the area of host-directed therapies for TB.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis --- host-directed therapies --- immune responses --- tuberculosis --- lung cancer --- misdiagnosis --- invasive procedure --- revising --- antiplatelet --- aspirin --- immunomodulation --- survival --- Taiwan --- latent infection --- pulmonary --- rabbit --- iron supplementation --- pathology --- immune response --- gene expression --- Perls’ stain --- autophagy --- M. tb --- BCG vaccination --- immune exhaustion --- glutathione --- cytokines --- granulomas --- type 2 diabetes --- co-morbidities --- co-infections --- inflammation --- redox imbalance --- antioxidants

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Cancer of the urological sphere is a disease continuously increasing in numbers in the statistics of tumor malignancies in Western countries. Although this fact is mainly due to the contemporary increase of life expectancy of the people in these geographic areas, many other factors do contribute as well to this growth. Urological cancer is a complex and varied disease of different organs and mainly affects the male population. In fact, kidney, prostate, and bladder cancer are regularly included in the top-ten list of the most frequent neoplasms in males in most statistics. The female population, however, has also increasingly found itself affected by renal and bladder cancer in the last decade. Considering these altogether, urological cancer is a problem of major concern in developed societies. This Topic Issue of Cancers intends to shed some light into the complexity of this field and will consider all useful and appropriate contributions that scientists and clinicians may provide to improve urological cancer knowledge for patients’ benefit. The precise identification of the molecular routes involved, the diagnostic pathological criteria in the grey zones, the dilemma of T1G3 management, and the possible treatment options between superficial, nonmuscle-invasive and muscle-invasive diseases will be particularly welcomed in this Issue.

bladder cancer --- radiotherapy --- radiosensitisation --- molecular subtypes --- preclinical studies --- bladder cancer cell lines --- latent cancer --- prostate cancer --- autopsy --- prognostic index --- prediction model --- mortality --- screening trial --- renal cell carcinoma --- PD-1 --- PD-L1 --- biomarkers --- immune checkpoint inhibitors --- prostatic neoplasms --- positron-emission tomography --- decision making --- tumor thrombus --- metastasectomy --- postoperative complications --- oncological outcomes --- radical cystectomy --- AHNAK2 --- prognosis --- dog --- comparative oncology --- inflammation --- prostatic atrophy --- preneoplastic lesion --- biomarker --- urine --- machine learning --- TRIPOD --- liquid biopsy --- glutaminase --- immunohistochemistry --- in situ methods --- prostate --- PSMA-RLT --- 177Lu-PSMA --- PSA --- mCRPC --- urinary bladder neoplasms --- Bacillus Calmette–Guérin (BCG) --- immunotherapy --- divergent differentiation --- variant morphology --- survival --- stereotactic body radiotherapy --- frail patients --- cancer --- metastasis --- genomic analysis --- microenvironment --- tumor ecology --- game theory --- fluorescence confocal microscopy --- prostate biopsy --- ablation margins --- focal therapy --- sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 --- bladder carcinoma --- cell migration --- epithelial–mesenchymal transition --- FTY-720 --- OIP5 --- papillary renal cell carcinoma --- PLK1 --- tumorigenesis --- therapy --- image-guided --- magnetic resonance imaging --- ultrasonography --- biopsy --- abiraterone --- enzalutamide --- docetaxel --- novel hormonal therapies --- comparative effectiveness --- real-world treatment pattern --- metastatic prostate cancer --- epiplakin --- diagnosis --- advanced urothelial carcinoma --- immune checkpoint inhibitor --- prognostic --- tumour mutational board --- genomic signatures --- ctDNA --- inflammatory indices --- urothelial carcinoma --- frailty --- prognostic factor --- psoas muscle --- Hounsfield units --- n/a --- Bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) --- epithelial-mesenchymal transition --- Research. --- Chemistry.

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After our successful first Special Issue about bladder cancer, we proceeded with the second issue. Again, many international scientists submitted their newest research results in that extremely interesting field and followed our call for submissions. It is not only the collection and combination of old and new markers that could develop new possibilities, but also the focus on different classifications and sub-classifications that will unveil new ways in diagnostic and therapeutic approaches. It seems that the two established diagnostic tools will still play an important role, but new markers and diagnostics tools will present more detailed and more differentiated possibilities in the treatment of urinary bladder cancer. This second Special Issue is full of scientific results that could provide new ways to help patients with instruments for early diagnostics and with predictive and prognostic markers on their way to finding new and personalized strategies for therapy. The editors thank all of the submitting authors for their efforts and time spent on each manuscript. We hope that this Special Issue will prove useful to research work in bladder cancer in the future. We hope that many talented researchers will use multiple forms of art to improve their professional successes and to ameliorate diagnostics and therapy in bladder cancer.

Metallothionein --- urothelium --- urothelial cancer --- cadmium exposure --- zinc transporter --- bladder --- TAGLN --- F-actin --- PTEN --- p53 --- tumorigenesis --- proliferation --- invasion --- TERT promoter mutations --- FGFR3 --- non muscle invasive bladder cancer --- BCG therapy --- bladder cancer --- JAK-STAT pathway --- combination therapy --- oncolytic adenovirus --- virotherapy --- STAT3/5 inhibitor --- JAK inhibitor --- XVir-N-31 --- bladder cancer detection --- urinary biomarkers --- DNA methylation --- ECRG4 --- ITIH5 --- n/a --- biomarker --- cancer --- grade --- metabolomics --- MS --- NMR --- biomarkers --- tumor markers --- prognosis --- heparanase --- syndecan-1 --- heparan sulfate proteoglycans (HSPGs) --- urothelial carcinoma --- miRNA --- quantitative PCR --- tumor marker --- voided urine cytology --- KDM7A --- histone demethylase --- TC-E 5002 --- androgen receptor --- drug resistance --- non-invasive detection --- telomerase --- somatic mutations --- TERT promoter region --- muscle-invasive bladder cancer --- chemotherapy --- immunotherapy --- personalized medicine --- predictive biomarker --- survivin --- BIRC5 --- macrophage --- KRT20 --- ERBB2 --- MIBC --- prediction --- RT-qPCR --- adjuvant chemotherapy --- survival

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DNA is a rapidly developing vaccine platform for cancer and infectious and non-infectious diseases. Plasmids are used as immunogens to encode proteins to be further synthesized in vaccine recipients. DNA is mainly synthetic, ensuring enhanced expression in the cells of vaccine recipients (mostly mammalians). Their introduction into the host induces antibody and cellular responses. The latter are often more pronounced, and mimic the events occurring in infection, especially viral. There are a few distinct ways in which the vaccine antigen can be processed and presented, which determine the resulting immune response and which can be manipulated. Routinely, the antigen synthesized within the host cell is processed by proteasome, loaded onto, and presented in a complex with MHC I molecules. Processing can be re-routed to the lysosome, or immunogen can be secreted for further presentation in a complex with MHC II. Apart from expression, vaccination efficacy depends on DNA delivery. DNA immunogens are generally administered by intramuscular or intradermal injections, usually followed by electroporation, which enhances delivery 1000-fold. Other techniques are also used, such as noninvasive introduction by biojectors, skin applications with plasters and microneedles/chips, sonication, magnetofection, and even tattooing. An intense debate regarding the pros and cons of different routes of delivery is ongoing. A number of studies have compared the effect of delivery methods at the level of immunogen expression, and the magnitude and specificity of the resulting immune response. According to some, the delivery route determines immunogenic performance; according to others, it can modulate the level of response, but not its specificity or polarity. The progress of research aiming at the optimization of DNA vaccine design, delivery, and immunogenic performance has led to a marked increase in their efficacy in large species and humans. New DNA vaccines for use in the treatment of infectious diseases, cancer, allergies, and autoimmunity are forthcoming. This Special Issue covers various aspects of DNA vaccine development.

alphaviruses --- layered RNA/DNA vectors --- DNA vaccines --- RNA replicons --- recombinant particles --- tumor regression --- protection against tumor challenges and infectious agents --- ebola virus disease --- artificial T-cell antigens --- DNA vaccine constructs --- computer design --- gene expression --- immunogenicity --- DNA vaccine --- mRNA vaccine --- plasmid DNA --- in vitro transcribed mRNA --- immune responses --- formulations --- Cytolytic T Lymphocytes --- antibodies --- innate immunity --- adjuvants --- vaccine delivery --- plasmid --- cytolytic --- perforin --- bicistronic --- HCV --- HIV --- IL-36 --- adjuvant --- DNA --- Zika --- Epstein-Barr virus --- latent proteins --- LMP2 --- EBNA1 --- LMP1 --- HIV-1 --- enhancer element --- circovirus --- influenza --- immunization --- intranasal --- lipid --- flagellin --- BCG --- vaccine --- rBCG --- HTI --- T-cell --- AIDS --- clinical trial --- therapeutic vaccine --- hepatitis C virus (HCV) --- mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) --- modified MSC --- DNA immunization --- nonstructural HCV proteins --- immune response --- HCV vaccine --- myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs) --- n/a