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This study presents the facts, arguments and scenarios around public debt from a global perspective. Especially the largest economies feature record debt and fiscal risks, including from population ageing and financial imbalances. Given low interest rates, there is no imminent problem. But at some point, debt will have to come down. There are four possible scenarios how debt could come down. First, governments could economise and reform. Second, governments could default. Third, governments could erode the real value of debt via inflation and negative real interest rates. However, this scenario cannot continue forever. Policy errors can prompt a loss of confidence, destabilisation and crisis. This fourth scenario last included the largest economies in the 1970s. It would become a major global challenge if it were to happen again in today's interconnected world.

public debt --- loss --- economic recession --- economy --- interest --- Crise économique --- Dette publique --- Pertes économiques --- Conditions économiques --- Intérêts --- intérêt --- ränta --- palūkanos --- procenti --- dobândă --- Zins --- kamata --- úrok --- τόκος --- imgħax --- intress --- obresti --- korko --- odsetki --- juro --- interes --- kamat --- камата --- interés --- rente --- интерес --- ús --- interesse --- norma e interesit --- intressimäär --- úroková sazba --- räntefot --- räntesats --- каматна стапка --- palūkanų norma --- úroková sadzba --- tipo de interés --- procentu likme --- kamatláb --- rentesats --- interest rate --- επιτόκιο --- kamatna stopa --- Zinsfuß --- úroková míra --- rata dobânzii --- taxa de juro --- Zinssatz --- rentevoet --- taux d'intérêt --- tasso d'interesse --- saggio d'interesse --- hospodářství --- économie --- икономика --- talous --- gospodarka --- geilleagar --- economia --- majandus --- hospodárstvo --- ekonomika --- economie --- Wirtschaft --- gazdaság --- økonomi --- οικονομία --- привреда --- gospodarstvo --- економија --- ekonomija --- ekonomi --- economía --- ekonomikos mokslas --- gazdálkodás --- стопанство --- економска рецесија --- rënie ekonomike --- ekonomikas lejupslīde --- recesiune economică --- Rezession --- икономическа рецесия --- ekonomikos nuosmukis --- ekonomska recesija --- economische recessie --- hospodářská recese --- gospodarska recesija --- økonomisk recession --- gazdasági recesszió --- recessione economica --- cúlú eacnamaíoch --- talouden taantuma --- récession économique --- reċessjoni ekonomika --- recession --- οικονομική ύφεση --- привредна рецесија --- recesión económica --- majanduslangus --- recesja gospodarcza --- recessão económica --- hospodárska recesia --- decelerazione della crescita economica --- økonomisk afmatning --- bankovna kriza --- criză economică --- hospodářská deprese --- krizë ekonomike --- ekonominės padėties blogėjimas --- deterioramento dell'economia --- desaceleración de la economía --- zhoršení hospodářství --- deterioração da economia --- détérioration de l'économie --- talouden laskusuhdanne --- crisi economica --- економска криза --- majanduse madalseis --- ekonomisk recession --- forringelse af økonomien --- wirtschaftliche Depression --- lågkonjunktur --- majanduse halvenemine --- gazdasági depresszió --- økonomisk depression --- depresion ekonomik --- hospodářská krize --- lama --- økonomisk krise --- hospodárska kríza --- economische crisis --- verval van de economie --- Verschlechterung der Wirtschaft --- konjunkturální krize --- crise économique --- përkeqësim i ekonomisë --- zastavení hospodářského růstu --- economic crisis --- Konjunkturkrise --- οικονομική καταστροφή --- depresión económica --- ekonominė krizė --- глобална финансиска криза --- deterioration of the economy --- cúlú eacnamaíochta --- hospodársky pokles --- økonomisk tilbagegang --- economische depressie --- ekonomska depresija --- κατάρρευση της οικονομίας --- majanduskriis --- crise económica --- gazdasági válság --- contracción económica --- lavkonjunktur --- ekonomisk kris --- οικονομική κρίση --- depressão económica --- financijska kriza --- dépression économique --- економска депресија --- ekonomický útlum --- depression --- a gazdaság hanyatlása --- depressione economica --- úpadok hospodárstva --- stagnace --- ekonominis nuosmukis --- talouskriisi --- pokles konjunktury --- crisis económica --- ekonomiskā krīze --- Rückgang der Konjunktur --- economic depression --- försämring av ekonomin --- ekonomisk depression --- Wirtschaftskrise --- επιδείνωση της οικονομίας --- ekonomska kriza --- hanyatló gazdaság --- konjunkturnedgång --- ekonomiskās situācijas pasliktināšanās --- загуба --- zaudējums --- underskott --- underskud --- ztráta --- kahjum --- дефицит --- deficyt --- pierdere --- vajaus --- strata --- déficit --- défice --- izguba --- έλλειμμα --- telf --- disavanzo --- tekort --- humbje --- Defizit --- губитак --- deficit --- nuostoliai --- caillteanas --- Fehlbetrag --- губиток --- Verlust --- gubitak --- manjak --- veszteség --- overheidsschuld --- borxhi publik --- javni dug --- fiachas poiblí --- δημόσιο χρέος --- valstybės skola --- offentlig gæld --- dívida pública --- statsskuld --- valsts parāds --- riigivõlg --- veřejný dluh --- javni dolg --- štátny dlh --- dejn pubbliku --- datorie publică --- јавен долг --- öffentliche Schulden --- јавни дуг --- обществен дълг --- deuda pública --- julkinen velka --- államadósság --- dette publique --- dług publiczny --- debito pubblico --- státní dluh --- nacionalinė skola --- државен долг --- емисија на јавниот долг --- šalies skola --- задолжување на државата --- valtion velka --- statsgæld --- valitsemissektori võlg --- öffentliche Schuld --- valdības parāds --- government debt --- амортизација на јавниот долг --- debito fluttuante --- vládní dluh --- nacionalni dug --- národný dlh --- nemzeti adósság --- datorie națională --- national debt --- valtionvelka --- vyriausybės skola --- vládny dlh --- debito redimibile --- indebitamento del settore pubblico --- вкупен обем на јавниот долг --- нето јавен долг --- titoli del debito pubblico --- avaliku sektori võlg --- borxh kombëtar --- državni dug --- datorie guvernamentală --- borxh shtetëror --- бруто јавен долг --- národní dluh --- Debts, Public. --- Fiscal policy. --- Tax policy --- Taxation --- Economic policy --- Finance, Public --- Debts, Government --- Government debts --- National debts --- Public debt --- Public debts --- Sovereign debt --- Debt --- Bonds --- Deficit financing --- Government policy

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Les banques centrales n'ont jamais été aussi... centrales pour l'économie. Longtemps restées des institutions austères et peu en vue pour le grand public, elles sont revenues sur le devant de la scène depuis la crise financière de 2008. Elles ont ensuite joué un rôle déterminant pendant la crise Covid, lors de laquelle elles ont acheté des milliers de milliards de dette publique et ont permis aux économies de ne pas sombrer. Le mode d'action des banques centrales a beaucoup changé ces dernières années : leurs politiques de taux ont radicalement changé, avec le passage du simple pilotage des taux directeurs à la forward guidance et aux taux négatifs ; elles utilisent leurs bilans de façon beaucoup plus systématique comme des outils de politique monétaire avec les programmes de quantitative easing et les opérations de refinancement des banques de longue durée ; elles accompagnent la digitalisation de l'économie en planchant sur des projets de monnaies numériques ; avec les grands défis du XXIe siècle, les missions qui leur sont confiées sont amenées à encore évoluer. Ce manuel s'adresse aux étudiants et aux enseignants en Licence d'économie, de gestion, ainsi qu'à ceux des écoles de management

Banks and banking, Central --- Monetary policy --- Electronic funds transfers --- banque centrale --- récession économique --- modèle économique --- institution financière --- finančna institucija --- instituição financeira --- instytucja finansowa --- finantseerimisasutus --- Finanzinstitution --- instituții financiare --- rahoituslaitos --- χρηματοπιστωτικός οργανισμός --- institiúid airgeadais --- финансиска институција --- финансијска установа --- finansielt institut --- финансова институция --- finansinstitut --- finanční instituce --- institucion financiar --- finančná inštitúcia --- istituto finanziario --- pénzügyi intézmény --- finanšu iestāde --- finansų įstaiga --- istituzzjoni finanzjarja --- institución financiera --- financijska ustanova --- financial institution --- financiële instelling --- Geldinstitut --- financijska organizacija --- finansiel institution --- établissement financier --- χρηματοπιστωτικό ίδρυμα --- entidad financiera --- Finanzinstitut --- sistema financiero --- estabelecimento financeiro --- pénzintézet --- finanční ústav --- financijska institucija --- finansbolag --- ekonomický model --- Wirtschaftsmodell --- model ekonomiczny --- ekonominis modelis --- model ekonomik --- taloudellinen malli --- økonomisk model --- ekonomikas modelis --- modelo económico --- model economic --- икономически модел --- mudell ekonomiku --- economic model --- majandusmudel --- gazdasági modell --- ekonomski model --- samhail eacnamaíoch --- економски модел --- οικονομικό υπόδειγμα --- modello economico --- economisch model --- ekonomisk modell --- ekonometriskais modelis --- modèle économétrique --- økonometrisk model --- econometric model --- οικονομικό μοντέλο --- econometrisch model --- model econometric --- ekonometrinen malli --- modello econometrico --- model ekonometrik --- οικονομετρικό υπόδειγμα --- ökonomisches Modell --- ekonometrisk modell --- ökonomeetriline mudel --- gospodarski model --- ekonometrinis modelis --- економетриски модел --- οικονομετρικό μοντέλο --- ekonometrický model --- ökonometriai modell --- ökonometrisches Modell --- modelo econométrico --- економска рецесија --- rënie ekonomike --- ekonomikas lejupslīde --- recesiune economică --- Rezession --- икономическа рецесия --- ekonomikos nuosmukis --- ekonomska recesija --- economische recessie --- hospodářská recese --- gospodarska recesija --- økonomisk recession --- gazdasági recesszió --- recessione economica --- economic recession --- cúlú eacnamaíoch --- talouden taantuma --- reċessjoni ekonomika --- recession --- οικονομική ύφεση --- привредна рецесија --- recesión económica --- majanduslangus --- recesja gospodarcza --- recessão económica --- hospodárska recesia --- decelerazione della crescita economica --- økonomisk afmatning --- bankovna kriza --- criză economică --- hospodářská deprese --- krizë ekonomike --- ekonominės padėties blogėjimas --- deterioramento dell'economia --- desaceleración de la economía --- zhoršení hospodářství --- deterioração da economia --- détérioration de l'économie --- talouden laskusuhdanne --- crisi economica --- економска криза --- majanduse madalseis --- ekonomisk recession --- forringelse af økonomien --- wirtschaftliche Depression --- lågkonjunktur --- majanduse halvenemine --- gazdasági depresszió --- økonomisk depression --- depresion ekonomik --- hospodářská krize --- lama --- økonomisk krise --- hospodárska kríza --- economische crisis --- verval van de economie --- Verschlechterung der Wirtschaft --- konjunkturální krize --- crise économique --- përkeqësim i ekonomisë --- zastavení hospodářského růstu --- economic crisis --- Konjunkturkrise --- οικονομική καταστροφή --- depresión económica --- ekonominė krizė --- глобална финансиска криза --- deterioration of the economy --- cúlú eacnamaíochta --- hospodársky pokles --- økonomisk tilbagegang --- economische depressie --- ekonomska depresija --- κατάρρευση της οικονομίας --- majanduskriis --- crise económica --- gazdasági válság --- contracción económica --- lavkonjunktur --- ekonomisk kris --- οικονομική κρίση --- depressão económica --- financijska kriza --- dépression économique --- економска депресија --- ekonomický útlum --- depression --- a gazdaság hanyatlása --- depressione economica --- úpadok hospodárstva --- stagnace --- ekonominis nuosmukis --- talouskriisi --- pokles konjunktury --- crisis económica --- ekonomiskā krīze --- Rückgang der Konjunktur --- economic depression --- försämring av ekonomin --- ekonomisk depression --- Wirtschaftskrise --- επιδείνωση της οικονομίας --- ekonomska kriza --- hanyatló gazdaság --- konjunkturnedgång --- ekonomiskās situācijas pasliktināšanās --- централна банка --- banc ceannais --- keskuspankki --- Zentralbank --- središnja banka --- centrálna banka --- bankë qendrore --- központi bank --- keskpank --- centrinis bankas --- bancă centrală --- banco central --- banca centrale --- κεντρική τράπεζα --- centrální banka --- bank centralny --- central bank --- centrālā banka --- bank ċentrali --- centralna banka --- centralbank --- centrale bank --- nationale bank --- federālā banka --- Banco de España --- banco emisor --- εθνική τράπεζα --- емисиска банка --- banco emissor --- banco federal --- bankë e shtetit --- nacionalna banka --- Forbundsbank --- banca d'emissione --- národná banka --- kansallinen pankki --- банка издавач --- šalies bankas --- föderaalpank --- ομοσπονδιακή τράπεζα --- national bank --- sedelutgivande bank --- federalna banka --- emisná banka --- riksbank --- jegybank --- banque fédérale --- bankë federale --- bancă federală --- bancă națională --- cedulová banka --- federale bank --- emissiebank --- nationalbank --- förbundsbank --- narodna banka --- bankë e emetimit të parasë --- banque nationale --- federal bank --- emisijas banka --- seddeludstedende bank --- národní banka --- emisijos bankas --- banco nacional --- szövetségi bank --- Banco de Portugal --- circulatiebank --- istituto d'emissione --- središnja nacionalna banka --- федерална банка --- nemzeti bank --- εκδοτική τράπεζα --- emisní banka --- национална банка --- banca federale --- Bundesbank --- seddelbank --- banca nazionale --- bank of issue --- federalinis bankas --- emissioonipank --- Notenbank --- banque d'émission --- federálna banka --- avaajapankki --- politique monétaire --- monnaie virtuelle --- virtuális fizetőeszköz --- virtuele munteenheid --- virtuaalivaluutta --- виртуална валута --- virtuell valuta --- moeda virtual --- virtuālā valūta --- virtuální měna --- munita virtwali --- virtual currency --- virtualioji valiuta --- virtuálna mena --- virtualna valuta --- waluta wirtualna --- virtuaalvääring --- valuta virtuale --- moneda virtual --- εικονικό νόμισμα --- virtuelle Währung --- monedă virtuală --- виртуелна валута --- virtuel valuta --- airgeadra fíorúil --- cibermoeda --- kybernetická měna --- virtuaaliraha --- MV --- munita ċibernetika --- kriptovaliuta --- cybervaluta --- kryptomena --- cyber-monnaie --- digitale munteenheid --- moeda digital --- digitális fizetőeszköz --- cryptomunt --- criptomonedă --- criptovaluta --- kryptoraha --- système de monnaie virtuelle --- kryptoměna --- bitmonēta --- criptomoeda --- cryptovaluta --- criptomoneda --- internetes fizetőeszköz --- regime de moeda virtual --- criptea-airgeadra --- Bitcoin --- sistema de moneda virtual --- cyber currency --- system waluty wirtualnej --- VCS --- virtuelle Währungen --- kyberraha --- virtuele valuta --- kibervalūta --- cryptocurrency --- kryptovaluta --- ВВ --- crypto-monnaie --- Cyberwährung --- sustav virtualne valute --- σύστημα εικονικού νομίσματος --- systém virtuálnych mien --- munita kriptografika --- kybernetická mena --- waluta kryptograficzna --- dinero virtual --- systém virtuálních měn --- kriptovaluta --- sistem de monedă virtuală --- криптовалута --- cybermunt --- kriptonauda --- kriptovalūta --- virtuelles Währungssystem --- digitale munt --- monedă cibernetică --- moneda digital --- bitkoinas --- virtuaalivaluuttajärjestelmä --- virtuālās valūtas sistēma --- kybervaluutta --- RMV --- virtuali valiuta --- sistem virtualnih valut --- схема за виртуална валута --- waluta internetowa --- virtual currency scheme --- виртуална парична единица --- kibervaluta --- kryptowaluta --- cibervaluta --- кибервалута --- κυβερνονόμισμα --- sistema di valuta virtuale --- kryptovaluutta --- küberraha --- bitcoin --- bitmoneta --- virtuaalinen raha --- virtuális pénznem --- Kryptowährung --- digital valuta --- κρυπτονόμισμα --- virtualiosios valiutos sistema --- биткойн --- SMV --- skema ta’ muniti virtwali --- spletna valuta --- kriptopénz --- VC --- moeda eletrónica --- internetska valuta --- política monetaria --- νομισματική πολιτική --- politică monetară --- měnová politika --- menová politika --- rahapolitiikka --- pinigų politika --- beartas airgeadaíochta --- Geldpolitik --- política monetária --- monetary policy --- monetārā politika --- monetair beleid --- rahapoliitika --- валутна политика --- penningpolitik --- monetarna politika --- монетарна политика --- polityka walutowa --- monetær politik --- politica monetaria --- politika monetarja --- monetáris politika --- politikë monetare --- currency reform --- monetární politika --- monetaire stabiliteit --- menová situácia --- νομισματική μεταρρύθμιση --- pinigų reforma --- situazione monetaria --- naudas politika --- monetáris helyzet --- měnová situace --- menová reforma --- currency situation --- situação monetária --- situación monetaria --- money policy --- valuuttatilanne --- situatë valutore --- reformă monetară --- penningreform --- νομισματική κατάσταση --- Währungspolitik --- Währungslage --- riforma monetaria --- monetáris reform --- monetarinė politika --- peňažná politika --- reformë valutore --- reforma monetária --- valuutareform --- valuutasituatsioon --- situație monetară --- novčarska politika --- pénzpolitika --- situation monétaire --- pénzreform --- rahareform --- réforme monétaire --- novčana politika --- valūtas reforma --- Geld- und Kreditpolitik --- reforma monetaria --- stabilità monetaria --- монетарна реформа --- Währungsreform --- monetaire situatie --- politika e parasë --- monetaarpoliitika --- monetaire hervorming --- piniginė padėtis --- valuuttauudistus --- měnová reforma --- monetär situation --- Banques centrales. --- Politique monétaire. --- Monnaie électronique. --- 333.80 --- 333.111.0 --- Geld-, bank- en kredietpolitiek. Kapitaalmarkt en -rente: algemeenheden --- Algemeenheden. Theoretische en beschrijvende studies. Centrale banken --- récession économique --- modèle économique --- institution financière --- politique monétaire