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Economically efficient prices for the passenger transportation system in the Greater Cairo Metropolitan Area would account for broader societal costs of traffic congestion and accidents, and local and global pollution. A USD 2.20 per gallon gasoline tax (2006 USD) would be economically efficient, compared with the current subsidy of USD 1.20 per gallon. Removal of the existing subsidy alone would achieve about three-quarters of the net benefits from subsidy elimination and the tax. Per-mile tolls could target congestion and accident externalities more efficiently than fuel taxes, although they are not practical at present. A combination of USD 0.80 per gallon gasoline tax to address pollution (versus USD 2.20 without tolls), and USD 0.12 and USD 0.19 tolls per vehicle mile on automobiles and microbuses, respectively, to address traffic congestion and accident externalities (versus USD 0.22 without fuel taxes) would be most efficient. Current public bus and rail subsidies are relatively close to efficient levels in the absence of such policies; however, if automobile and microbus externalities were fully addressed through more efficient pricing, optimal subsides to public transit would be smaller than current levels.

Airports and Air Services --- Congestion --- Emissions --- Energy --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Externalities --- Fuel tax --- Mileage toll --- Roads & Highways --- Transport and Environment --- Transport Economics Policy & Planning --- Egypt

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This article investigates the use of expert-based Marginal Abatement Cost Curves (MACC) to design abatement strategies. It shows that introducing inertia, in the form of the "cost in time" of available options, changes significantly the message from MACCs. With an abatement objective in cumulative emissions (e.g., emitting less than 200 GtCO2 in the 2000-2050 period), it makes sense to implement some of the more expensive options before the potential of the cheapest ones has been exhausted. With abatement targets expressed in terms of emissions at one point in time (e.g., reducing emissions by 20 percent in 2020), it can even be preferable to start with the implementation of the most expensive options if their potential is high and their inertia significant. Also, the best strategy to reach a short-term target is different depending on whether this target is the ultimate objective or there is a longer-term target. The best way to achieve Europe's goal of 20 percent reduction in emissions by 2020 is different if this objective is the ultimate objective or if it is only a milestone in a trajectory toward a 75 percent reduction in 2050. The cheapest options may be sufficient to reach the 2020 target but could create a carbon-intensive lock-in and preclude deeper emission reductions by 2050. These results show that in a world without perfect foresight and perfect credibility of the long-term carbon-price signal, a unique carbon price in all sectors is not the most efficient approach. Sectoral objectives, such as Europe's 20 percent renewable energy target in Europe, fuel-economy standards in the auto industry, or changes in urban planning, building norms and infrastructure design are a critical part of an efficient mitigation policy.

Climate Change Economics --- Climate Change Mitigation and Green House Gases --- Dynamic efficiency --- Energy and Environment --- Environment --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- How-flexibility --- Inertia --- MACC --- Marginal abatement cost curves --- Merit-order --- Optimal abatement strategy --- Timing --- Transport and Environment --- When-flexibility

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This study analyzes CO2 emissions reduction targets for various countries and geopolitical regions by the year 2030 in order to stabilize atmospheric concentrations of CO2 at the level of 450 ppm (550 ppm including non CO2 greenhouse gases). It also determines CO2 intensity cuts that would be needed in those countries and regions if the emission reductions were achieved through intensity-based targets while assuming no effect on forecasted economic growth. Considering that the stabilization of CO2 concentrations at 450 ppm requires the global trend of CO2 emissions to reverse before 2030, this study develops two scenarios: reversing the global CO2 trend in (i) 2020 and (ii) 2025. The study shows that global CO2 emissions would be 42 percent above the 1990 level in 2030 if the increasing trend of global CO2 emissions is reversed by 2020. If reversing the trend is delayed by 5 years, the 2030 global CO2 emissions would be 52 percent higher than the 1990 level. The study also finds that to achieve these targets while maintaining assumed economic growth, the global average CO2 intensity would require a 68 percent drop from the 1990 level or a 60 percent drop from the 2004 level by 2030.

Clean energy --- Climate --- Climate Change --- Climate change --- CO2 --- CO2 Emissions --- Emissions reduction --- Emissions reduction targets --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Energy Production and Transportation --- Environment --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- Framework Convention on Climate Change --- GHGs --- Greenhouse gases --- Transport --- Transport and Environment

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The Environment Ministers of OECD member countries endorsed the Guidelines for moving towards Environmentally Sustainable Transport (EST) at their meeting in May 2001. These Guidelines are based on the results and conclusions of the EST project involving many OECD and non-OECD countries and provide a solution to making transport policy more sustainable and enhancing quality of life. They have been developed to enable economic development and individual welfare without causing undue health and environmental impacts and depletion of finite resources. The EST Guidelines will assist governments at all levels in the development and implementation of strategies towards EST. Effective implementation of the EST Guidelines requires strategies that accommodate the particular geographic and socio-economic conditions of countries or regions.These guidelines guidelines represent a desirable and feasible approach for the transport sector that may also be of value in the sustainable development of other sectors.

Sustainable development. --- Transportation -- Environmental aspects. --- Transportation and state -- OECD countries. --- Transportation --- Sustainable development --- Transportation and state --- Business & Economics --- Transportation Economics --- Environmental aspects --- State and transportation --- Transportation policy --- Development, Sustainable --- Ecologically sustainable development --- Economic development, Sustainable --- Economic sustainability --- ESD (Ecologically sustainable development) --- Smart growth --- Sustainable economic development --- Public transportation --- Transport --- Transportation, Primitive --- Transportation companies --- Transportation industry --- Government policy --- Economic aspects --- Economic development --- Locomotion --- Commerce --- Communication and traffic --- Storage and moving trade --- Transport and Environment --- Policies --- Sustainable Development

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The problem of climate change seems to be a tragedy of the commons: despite the global benefits of reducing green-house gas emissions, no individual has any incentive to reduce his or her own emissions. Yet many people are making efforts to reduce emissions and putting pressure on businesses and governments to do the same. Although the size of these efforts is unclear, their very existence might seem puzzling. The efforts are consistent, however, with some theoretical and empirical evidence about the extent of cooperation in other social dilemmas. This evidence does not imply that greenhouse-gas emissions will be reduced to desirable levels, but it does suggest that the potential for voluntary cooperation should not be ignored. It also suggests that cooperation can be promoted by (i) allowing cooperators to punish defectors without withdrawing their own cooperation; (ii) publicly emphasizing the social benefits and extent of cooperation and the social norms that require it; and (iii) improving the quantity and timeliness of public information about cooperation and defection.

Air travel --- Anthropology --- Climate --- Climate Change --- Climate change --- Collective action --- Common property --- Common property resource --- Common Property Resource Development --- Commons --- Cooperative equilibrium --- Culture & Development --- Economic Theory and Research --- Education --- Education and Society --- Energy --- Energy and Environment --- Environment --- Environment and Energy Efficiency --- Equilibrium --- Externality --- Fishery --- Forest --- Fuels --- Gas --- Gas emissions --- Gender --- Gender and Social Development --- Health Systems Development and Reform --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Local commons --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Natural resources --- Property rights --- Resource use --- Rural Development --- Transport --- Transport and Environment