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Illicit work, social security fraud, economic crime and other shadow economy activities are fast becoming an international problem. Friedrich Schneider and Dominik H. Enste use currency demand, physical input (electricity) method, and the model approach to estimate the size of the shadow economy in 76 developing, transition and OECD-countries. They argue that during the 1990s the average size of a shadow economy varied from 12 per cent of GDP for OECD, to 23 per cent for transition and to 39% for developing countries. They examine the causes and consequences of this development using an integrated approach explaining deviant behaviour, which combines the findings of economic, sociological and psychological research. The authors suggest that increasing taxation, social security contributions, rising state regulatory activities and the decline of the tax morale, are all driving forces behind this growth, especially in OECD-countries. They propose a reform of state institutions to improve the dynamics of the official economy.

Economic structure --- economie souterraine --- fraude --- criminalite --- situation economique --- AA / International- internationaal --- 336.208 --- 343.35 --- Informal sector (Economics) --- 330 --- Hidden economy --- Parallel economy --- Second economy --- Shadow economy --- Subterranean economy --- Underground economy --- Artisans --- Economics --- Small business --- ondergrondse economie --- criminaliteit --- economische toestand --- Grondslag, vereffening, inning en controle van de belastingen. Fiscale fraude. Zwartwerk. Parallelle economie. --- Misdrijven tegen de openbare administratie, de belasting- en administratieve wetgeving. --- Commercial crimes. --- Informal sector (Economics). --- Business enterprises --- Commercial crimes --- Tax evasion --- Illegal aliens --- Welfare fraud --- Fraud --- Management --- Business & Economics --- Industrial Management --- Corrupt practices --- Business, Economy and Management --- Tax evasion. --- Illegal aliens. --- Welfare fraud. --- Fraud. --- Corrupt practices. --- Commercial fraud --- Deceit --- Misrepresentation (Crime) --- Aliens --- Aliens, Illegal --- Illegal immigrants --- Illegal immigration --- Undocumented aliens --- Evasion, Fiscal --- Fiscal evasion --- Tax avoidance --- Tax delinquency --- Tax-dodging --- Tax fraud --- Taxation --- Taxation, Evasion of --- Corporate crime --- Crimes, Financial --- Financial crimes --- Offenses affecting the public trade --- Business organizations --- Businesses --- Companies --- Enterprises --- Firms --- Organizations, Business --- Legal status, laws, etc. --- Evasion --- Deception --- Torts --- Hoaxes --- Impostors and imposture --- Public welfare --- Swindlers and swindling --- Alien detention centers --- Human smuggling --- White collar crimes --- Crime --- Business --- E-books --- Grondslag, vereffening, inning en controle van de belastingen. Fiscale fraude. Zwartwerk. Parallelle economie --- Misdrijven tegen de openbare administratie, de belasting- en administratieve wetgeving --- Undocumented immigrants. --- Undocumented immigrants --- Noncitizens. --- Enemy aliens --- Expatriates --- Foreign population --- Foreign residents --- Foreigners --- Non-citizens --- Noncitizens --- Resident aliens --- Unauthorized immigrants --- Unnaturalized foreign residents --- Persons --- Illegal immigration. --- Undocumented Immigrants --- Children of illegal aliens --- Illegal alien children --- Irregular migration --- Unauthorized immigration --- Undocumented immigration --- Women illegal aliens --- Emigration and immigration --- Noncitizen detention centers

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The politics and policies that led to America's expansion of the penal system and reduction of welfare programs In 1970's America, politicians began "getting tough" on drugs, crime, and welfare. These campaigns helped expand the nation's penal system, discredit welfare programs, and cast blame for the era's social upheaval on racialized deviants that the state was not accountable to serve or represent. Getting Tough sheds light on how this unprecedented growth of the penal system and the evisceration of the nation's welfare programs developed hand in hand. Julilly Kohler-Hausmann shows that these historical events were animated by struggles over how to interpret and respond to the inequality and disorder that crested during this period. When social movements and the slowing economy destabilized the U.S. welfare state, politicians reacted by repudiating the commitment to individual rehabilitation that had governed penal and social programs for decades. In its place, they championed strategies of punishment, surveillance, and containment. The architects of these tough strategies insisted they were necessary, given the failure of liberal social programs and the supposed pathological culture within poor African American and Latino communities. Kohler-Hausmann rejects this explanation and describes how the spectacle of enacting punitive policies convinced many Americans that social investment was counterproductive and the "underclass" could be managed only through coercion and force. Getting Tough illuminates this narrative through three legislative cases: New York's adoption of the 1973 Rockefeller drug laws, Illinois's and California's attempts to reform welfare through criminalization and work mandates, and California's passing of a 1976 sentencing law that abandoned rehabilitation as an aim of incarceration. Spanning diverse institutions and weaving together the perspectives of opponents, supporters, and targets of punitive policies, Getting Tough offers new interpretations of dramatic transformations in the modern American state.

Public welfare --- Imprisonment --- Criminal justice, Administration of --- Administration of criminal justice --- Justice, Administration of --- Crime --- Criminal law --- Criminals --- Confinement --- Incarceration --- Corrections --- Detention of persons --- Punishment --- Prison-industrial complex --- Prisons --- History --- Political aspects --- Law and legislation --- United States --- Politics and government --- 1970s America. --- 1973 drug laws. --- American lawmakers. --- California. --- Nelson Rockefeller. --- Ronald Reagan. --- U.S. welfare state. --- addicts. --- administrators. --- bureaucratic scrutiny. --- civic status. --- crime. --- criminalization. --- disorder. --- drug laws. --- drug rehabilitation. --- drug users. --- drugs. --- eligibility standards. --- fraud prosecutions. --- governing problems. --- heroin. --- inequality. --- law enforcement. --- law-and-order activists. --- law-and-order politicians. --- lawmakers. --- leftist radicals. --- legal reforms. --- low-income community. --- modern America. --- narcotics. --- penal rituals. --- penal sanctions. --- penal system. --- people of color. --- policymakers. --- political insurgency. --- political rhetoric. --- political rights. --- politicians. --- prison system. --- prisoners. --- prisons. --- punishment. --- pushers. --- rehabilitative ideal. --- rehabilitative regime. --- retribution. --- safety net. --- sentencing policy. --- social movements. --- social regulation. --- social upheaval. --- social welfare programs. --- state officials. --- state supports. --- street crime. --- surveillance. --- therapeutic regime. --- tough proposal. --- toughness imperative. --- welfare fraud. --- welfare recipients. --- welfare. --- work requirements. --- School-to-prison pipeline --- Since 1969