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This book presents a game changing technology of lower energy-intensive urea production of urea which is used as fertilizer. The technology, from a resource to a knowledge-intensive based industry, investigates a new synthesis approach employing electromagnetic induction and nano-catalyst at lower energy consumption. This clean and green method for a sustainable future might change the landscape of future chemical processes. It is made possible due to the enhancement in nanotechnology where quantum mechanical understanding is called into play. New reactor designs are elaborated on and discussed explicitly. Hematite and nickel oxide nanocatalysts are proposed for the green urea synthesis process, in the presence of static and oscillating magnetic fields. Strategies to increase single to triplet conversion rate are given for better understanding of the improved urea rate. The focus is deliberately on scrutinizing the greenhouse gas effect on the urea yield, in this case CO2 flow rate. Coating techniques for slow release strategies are provided to reduce the volatilization of ammonia and leaching effect, hence offering a complete solution of Green Technology. Agriculture 4.0 that creates the new patterns and precision monitoring of crop rotation and livestock utilization will be able to pave the way for better crop yield. Development of advanced technology in agriculture is important for the implementation of Agriculture 4.0 and currently an inevitable trend of the socioeconomic development in the context of broader international integration for the sustainable future. The author would like to acknowledge Ministry of Higher Education (MOHE) for the grant worth RM 12 million to accomplish Green and Economical Urea project and to have full understanding on Green Technology in Urea. This book is a collaborative effort by her colleagues, Ku Zilati, Khanif, Shahrina, Zainovia, Azizah, Zakaria, and who have carried out the research over the past five years which started in 2011. Their unconditional commitment had brought us together and we completed the project with success. I wish to also thank Dr Menaka Ganeson and all my PhD students, Dr. Saima, Dr. Bilal, Mr. Zia and Mr. Irfan for their commitment to assist me to complete the book. Last but not least, thank you very much to Professor Mike Payne (Cambridge University) and Professor Koziol (Cranfield University) for the comments. .

Urea as fertilizer. --- Urea. --- Carbamide --- Materials science. --- Chemical engineering. --- Agriculture. --- Industrial engineering. --- Sustainable development. --- Biomaterials. --- Materials Science. --- Industrial Chemistry/Chemical Engineering. --- Operating Procedures, Materials Treatment. --- Sustainable Development. --- Metabolism --- Nitrogen excretion --- Urine --- Fertilizers --- Analysis --- Manufactures. --- Manufacturing, Machines, Tools, Processes. --- Development, Sustainable --- Ecologically sustainable development --- Economic development, Sustainable --- Economic sustainability --- ESD (Ecologically sustainable development) --- Smart growth --- Sustainable development --- Sustainable economic development --- Economic development --- Farming --- Husbandry --- Industrial arts --- Life sciences --- Food supply --- Land use, Rural --- Manufactured goods --- Manufactured products --- Products --- Products, Manufactured --- Commercial products --- Manufacturing industries --- Chemistry, Industrial --- Engineering, Chemical --- Industrial chemistry --- Engineering --- Chemistry, Technical --- Metallurgy --- Biocompatible materials --- Biomaterials --- Medical materials --- Medicine --- Biomedical engineering --- Materials --- Biocompatibility --- Prosthesis --- Environmental aspects --- Bioartificial materials --- Hemocompatible materials --- Biomaterials (Biomedical materials)

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In this thesis, the author investigates the chemistry and application of molecules containing urea and amide bonds. These bonds are some of the strongest known and are fundamental to biological processes. The author describes his discovery that sterically hindered ureas undergo solvolysis at room temperature under neutral conditions. This is a remarkable finding, since ureas are inert under these conditions and a general rule of chemistry is that hindered substrates are less reactive. Remarkably, the author translates these results to the correspondingly sterically hindered amides. This thesis has resulted in a number of outstanding publications in high profile journals. The unique method for breaking urea and amide bonds developed in this study is likely to have far reaching consequences for biological protein manipulation.

Organic compounds --- Chemical bonds. --- Urea. --- Amides. --- Synthesis. --- Carbamide --- Chemistry, Synthetic organic --- Organic synthesis (Chemistry) --- Synthetic organic chemistry --- Chemistry. --- Organic chemistry. --- Catalysis. --- Proteins. --- Organic Chemistry. --- Protein Science. --- Metabolism --- Nitrogen excretion --- Urine --- Bonds, Chemical --- Chemical structure --- Chemistry, Physical and theoretical --- Overlap integral --- Quantum chemistry --- Valence (Theoretical chemistry) --- Chemistry, Organic --- Analysis --- Synthesis --- Chemistry, Organic. --- Biochemistry. --- Biological chemistry --- Chemical composition of organisms --- Organisms --- Physiological chemistry --- Biology --- Chemistry --- Medical sciences --- Activation (Chemistry) --- Surface chemistry --- Organic chemistry --- Composition --- Proteins . --- Proteids --- Biomolecules --- Polypeptides --- Proteomics

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The mechanisms and physiological functions of urea transport across biological membranes are subjects of long-standing interest. Recent advances in the molecular biology and physiology of urea transport have yielded new insights into how and why urea moves across cell membranes. In the last two decades, seven facilitated urea transporters (UT-A1-6 and UT-B) have been cloned, and their gene organization, protein crystal structure, expression localization and physiological functions in the tissues have been described. In recent years, the studies in urea transporter knockout mouse models suggest that urea transporters may be useful targets for drug discovery of selective inhibitors. The modulation of urea transport activity by pharmacological agents may provide novel treatments for hypertension, congestive heart failure and other fluid-retaining states. However, although urea represents about 40% of all urinary solutes in normal human urine, the handling of this solute in the tissues has been largely neglected in the past, and few clinical or experimental studies now report data about urea. Most recent physiological textbooks include chapters on water and electrolyte physiology but not a single chapter on urea. Our aim in writing this book is to stimulate further research in new directions by providing novel and provocative insights into further mechanisms and the physiological significance of urea metabolism and transport in mammals. The book provides a state-of-the-art report on the latest findings on urea transport and where the field is going. Although some older work is cited, the main focus is on advances made over the past 20 years with regard to the biophysics, genetics, protein structure, molecular biology, physiology, pathophysiology and pharmacology of urea transport in mammalian cell membranes. These aspects are especially valid, as advances in our understanding of urea transporting mechanisms and physiology promise to yield new insights into biology and medicine.

Urea. --- Kidneys. --- Carbamide --- Metabolism --- Nitrogen excretion --- Urine --- Abdomen --- Urinary organs --- Nephrology --- Analysis --- Biochemistry. --- Medical genetics. --- Human physiology. --- Toxicology. --- Cell membranes. --- Protein Science. --- Gene Function. --- Human Physiology. --- Pharmacology/Toxicology. --- Membrane Biology. --- Human biology --- Medical sciences --- Physiology --- Human body --- Clinical genetics --- Diseases --- Heredity of disease --- Human genetics --- Pathology --- Genetic disorders --- Biological chemistry --- Chemical composition of organisms --- Organisms --- Physiological chemistry --- Biology --- Chemistry --- Cell surfaces --- Cytoplasmic membranes --- Plasma membranes --- Plasmalemma --- Membranes (Biology) --- Glycocalyces --- Chemicals --- Medicine --- Pharmacology --- Poisoning --- Poisons --- Genetic aspects --- Composition --- Toxicology --- Proteins . --- Pharmacology. --- Cell membranes . --- Drug effects --- Medical pharmacology --- Chemotherapy --- Drugs --- Pharmacy --- Proteids --- Biomolecules --- Polypeptides --- Proteomics --- Physiological effect

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The ability to produce insects has a broad impact on human lives in a wide array of areas including insect pest and weed management, human and veterinary medicine, insect production for food and nutrient supplements, as well as research and education. Insect rearing began as a simple desire, yet never a simple task, has continued to expand, both in methodology and application. A desire to learn about and understand insects grew into a desire to control and manipulate insects, both to suppress and to preserve. Rearing individual life stages extended to continuous rearing and maintaining evolved into production. Ultimately, this results in insects physically and behaviorally similar to those from nature. New multi-omics technologies (transcriptomics, nutrigenomics, metabolomics, etc.) recently increased knowledge of microbiomes, and the manipulation of nutrigenomic analysis and statistical optimization modeling have enabled advances in insect nutrition. These advances have resulted in a better understanding of the effects of the food stream ingredients and rearing conditions on the insect’s physiological and biochemical functions, in addition to promoting the production of high-quality insects. The production has application in research, insect control, and most recently, specialized food niche. Before one application has been fully realized, a new application has emerged, often supported with the application of new technologies. Given this pattern of advancement followed by benefits, there is every reason to anticipate more to come in the field of insect rearing.

trehalase --- trehalose metabolism --- in vitro rearing --- cold stress --- Trichogramma --- insects as feed and food --- nutrition --- food assimilation --- food conversion --- insect dietetics --- insect rearing --- macro-nutrients --- nitrogen source --- carbon to nitrogen ratio --- food waste --- urea --- black soldier fly larvae --- Hermetia illucens --- Psyttalia incisi --- oriental fruit fly --- cold storage --- emergence rate --- quality --- reproduction --- Apis mellifera --- deformation --- emergence --- honey bee --- larvae --- alternative protein --- amino acid --- Black Soldier fly --- insect protein --- macronutrients --- Coenosia attenuata --- mass rearing --- wing damage --- Bradysia impatiens --- Drosophila melanogaster --- fecundity --- organic waste management --- coconut endosperm --- soybean curd residue --- Diabrotica virgifera --- corn rootworm --- WCRMO-2 --- diet processing --- heating --- spotted-wing drosophila --- symbiotic bacteria --- gut microbiota --- pest-management --- mass-rearing --- insect fitness --- n/a

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What is life? How, where, and when did life arise? These questions have remained most fascinating over the last hundred years. Systems chemistry is the way to go to better understand this problem and to try and answer the unsolved question regarding the origin of Life. Self-organization, thanks to the role of lipid boundaries, made possible the rise of protocells. The role of these boundaries is to separate and co-locate micro-environments, and make them spatially distinct; to protect and keep them at defined concentrations; and to enable a multitude of often competing and interfering biochemical reactions to occur simultaneously. The aim of this Special Issue is to summarize the latest discoveries in the field of the prebiotic chemistry of biomolecules, self-organization, protocells and the origin of life. In recent years, thousands of excellent reviews and articles have appeared in the literature and some breakthroughs have already been achieved. However, a great deal of work remains to be carried out. Beyond the borders of the traditional domains of scientific activity, the multidisciplinary character of the present Special Issue leaves space for anyone to creatively contribute to any aspect of these and related relevant topics. We hope that the presented works will be stimulating for a new generation of scientists that are taking their first steps in this fascinating field.

origin of life --- peptidyl-transferase center --- pseudo-symmetry --- proto-ribosome --- SymR --- emergence of biological systems --- RNA ligation --- dimerization --- standard genetic codes --- codon assignment --- tRNA --- aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase classes --- thiophene --- acetylene --- transition metal sulfides --- hydrothermal conditions --- early metabolism --- origin-of-life --- prebiotic chemistry --- protein–monosaccharide recognition --- protein–monosaccharide interactions --- FRET analysis --- glycocodon theory --- glucose oxidase --- Mars --- prebiotic chemical evolution --- early Earth --- astrobiology --- CHNOPS --- transition elements --- sample return --- exoplanets --- complex organic molecules --- astrochemistry --- interstellar medium --- molecular ices --- solid state --- protoplanetary disks --- star forming regions --- comets --- vesicles --- division --- urea–urease enzymatic reaction --- bending modulus --- budding --- ADE theory --- dynamic kinetic stability --- cognition --- chemical evolution --- systems chemistry --- metabolism --- network expansion simulation --- temperature --- thermodynamics --- protocell --- compartment --- solid interface --- lipid --- polymerization --- cyclic nucleotides --- autocatalytic set --- osmotic pressure --- cell division --- lipid membrane --- bistable reaction system --- template-directed RNA synthesis --- origin of genetic code --- time order of canonical amino acids --- proto-metabolism --- chirogenesis --- quartz --- amino acids --- radiation damage --- GC×GC-TOFMS --- origins of life --- prebiotic membranes --- protoamphiphiles --- metal ions --- hot springs --- N-acyl amino acid --- analogue conditions --- viroids --- ribozyviruses --- primordial replicators --- ribozymes --- bilayer structure --- molecular dynamics --- aggregation process --- selection --- evolution --- Fenton chemistry --- reduced phosphorus --- pyrophosphate --- chemical complexity --- minerals --- schreibersite --- olivine --- serpentinite --- ulexite --- n/a --- protein-monosaccharide recognition --- protein-monosaccharide interactions --- urea-urease enzymatic reaction