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Consumption (Economics) --- Health --- Poverty --- Sex differences. --- Sex differences. --- Sex differences.

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This review contributes to a better understanding of the gender wage gap in Germany and puts forward key elements of a policy package to reduce gender pay gaps. It provides a detailed analysis of the role of firms in the gender wage gap by focusing on the pay gap between similarly skilled men and women between and within firms. The within-firm component captures differences in pay between men and women within firms related to differences in tasks and responsibilities, or differences in pay for work of equal value (e.g. bargaining, discrimination). The between-firm component captures the role of differences in pay between firms (unrelated to workforce composition) due to the tendency of women to work in low-wage firms. The review analyses gender differences in job mobility and the earnings consequences of career breaks following childbirth to shed light on the evolution of the gender wage gap across the working life. To put results for Germany in context, they are systematically benchmarked to those of four nearby countries (i.e. Denmark, France, the Netherlands and Sweden). The policy discussion extends the empirical analysis by putting forward a comprehensive policy package with an emphasis on policies targeted at firms.

Wages. --- Sex differences. --- Social issues, migration, health.

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The paper, which serves as a gender background paper for the 2021 Malawi Poverty Assessment, is structured as follows. It first presents the data and empirical strategy. Chapter two presents poverty data and discusses the intersection of poverty and gender. Poverty by household composition is essential for understanding gendered differences in poverty. From there, chapter three explores gender disparities in economic opportunities, following the analytical framework cited earlier. The authors will then move to potential drivers of economic outcomes: endowments (chapter four) and agency (chapter five). The last section offers conclusions.

Poverty --- Sex differences. --- Sex discrimination against women

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Using data from 41,873 individuals across 17 African countries, this paper examines gender differences in 10 socio-emotional skills and their relationship with education and earnings. Apart from self-control, the findings show a significant male advantage in self-reported skills, equivalent to the socio-emotional skill gained over 5.6 years of education. Closing the gender gap in education would close 17 percent of this gap. While overall socio-emotional skills and education are positively correlated for both men and women, the male advantage in socio-emotional skills increases at higher education levels. Socio-emotional skills are associated with higher earnings for both men and women. However, interpersonal skills are more strongly correlated with earnings for women, while gender gaps in those skills widen the most as education rises. The paper further discusses the implications of these results for interventions seeking to hone women's socio-emotional skills for labor market success and to address the gender norms that may perpetuate gaps in socio-emotional skills.

Sex differences in education. --- Gender identity.

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July 1995 Expectations are that educational attainment will grow most in the Middle East and North Africa and least in Sub-Saharan Africa. It should improve greatly in South Asia, where the level of attainment is lowest. The gender gap in education may have risen in the past decade. This trend will continue unless countries intensify their efforts to educate girls. Ahuja and Filmer present new estimates of educational attainment in 71 developing countries for the years 1985, 1990, and 1995. They also project levels of educational attainment through the year 2020 by using the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization's projections of enrollment and the International Labour Organization's projections of population by age and sex. The projections suggest interesting trends: Growth of stock in human capital is expected to be highest in the Middle East and North Africa and lowest in Sub-Saharan Africa. South Asia--currently the least educated part of the world--is expected to substantially augment its stock of human capital by the year 2020. In most regions, enrollment levels are expected to remain lower for girls than for boys. The gender gap in education may have risen in the past decade. This trend toward a widening of the gender gap may continue unless countries intensify their efforts to educate girls. This paper--a product of the Office of the Vice President, Development Economics--was prepared as a background paper for World Development Report 1995 on labor. Copies of this paper are available free from the World Bank, 1818 H Street NW, Washington, DC 20433. Deon Filmer may be contacted at dfilmer@worldbank.org.

Education --- Sex differences in education. --- Developing countries.