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Standalone (off-grid) renewable energy systems supply electricity in places where there is no access to a standard electrical grid. These systems may include photovoltaic generators, wind turbines, hydro turbines or any other renewable electrical generator. Usually, this kind of system includes electricity storage (commonly lead-acid batteries, but also other types of storage can be used). In some cases, a backup generator (usually powered by fossil fuel, diesel or gasoline) is part of the hybrid system. The modelling of the components, the control of the system and the simulation of the performance of the whole system are necessary to evaluate the system technically and economically. The optimization of the sizing and/or the control is also an important task in this kind of system.

renewable energy --- low-temperature energy storage --- SOC --- simulation --- sustainability --- greenhouse gas emission --- economic feasibility --- photovoltaic systems --- MPPT --- partial shading condition --- transfer reinforcement learning --- space decomposition --- microgrids --- energy management --- optimization --- photovoltaic --- energy storage --- demand response program (DRP) --- photovoltaic system (PV) --- pumped heat energy storage (PHES) --- critical peak pricing (CPP) DRP --- time-ahead dynamic pricing (TADP) DRP --- loss of power supply probability (LPSP) --- energy storage system (ESS) --- Multi-Objective Particle Swarm Optimization (MOPSO) --- pitch control --- permanent magnet-synchronous generator (PMSG) --- limit extracted power --- nonlinear adaptive control (NAC) --- perturbation observer --- vanadium redox flow battery --- genetic algorithm --- binary particle swarm optimization --- time-varying mirrored S-shaped transfer function --- greenhouse gas emissions --- heliostat --- sun tracking --- solar energy --- embedded system --- fuzzy logic control --- center of sums defuzzification method --- n/a