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Dissertation
Het gebruik van het pekelkreeftje Artemia spec. in de aquakultuur

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De invloed van abiotische en biotische faktoren op de levenscyclus van het pekelkreeftje, Artemia salina (L.) [micro]

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Dissertation
De invloed van abiotische en biotische faktoren op de levenscyclus van het pekelkreeftje, artemia salina L.

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De kweekproblematiek bij invertebraten : experimenten met Artemia salina L.

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Dissertation
Vergelijkend oecologisch onderzoek van twee poelen in de omgeving van Wevelgem

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Dissertation
Het gebruik van het pekelkreeftje Artemia spec. in de aquakultuur
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Year: 1979 Publisher: Gent RUG. Faculteit wetenschappen

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Epidemiology of infectious diseases in cultured white shrimp Litopenaeus vannamei, with emphasis on white spot disease.

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De garnalenkweek is voor Ecuador de derde belangrijkste economische activiteit, na de petroleumindustrie en de teelt van bananen. Jammer genoeg werd de ecuadoriaanse garnaalsector in de voorbije twee decennia reeds meerdere keren getroffen door epidemische ziekten. Het laatste ernstige voorval was de uitbraak van “white spot disease” (WSD). Deze ziekte veroorzaakte een terugval in productie van 120.000 ton in het jaar 1998 tot 37.000 ton het jaar daarop, en toonde de noodzaak aan om methoden te ontwikkelen voor preventie en beheer van ziekten. Het risico op introductie van nieuwe pathogenen dient dan ook dringend en drastisch verminderd te worden. Alleen dan is een globale en duurzame ontwikkeling van deze industrie mogelijk. Hiertoe is het nodig te bepalen welke factoren – in het bijzonder welke omgevingsfactoren – een determinerende rol spelen bij de uitbraak van ziekten zoals WSD. In deze thesis worden dan ook twee hoofddoelstellingen vooropgesteld: (a) het verwerven van kennis en inzicht in omgevingsfactoren die een rol spelen bij de uitbraak van WSD, door middel van een epidemiologische aanpak, en (b) de ontwikkeling van strategieën voor het voorspellen van epidemische ziekten. Om de WSD epidemie beter te begrijpen, werden risicofactoren bestudeerd, zowel op nationaal niveau als op niveau van de vetmestingsvijver. Op nationaal niveau werd aangetoond dat vooral het klimaat invloed had op het uitbreken van WSD. Epidemiologisch onderzoek in drie Ecuadoraanse vetmestingsbedrijven toonden vervolgens een verband aan tussen lage temperatuur en hoge mortaliteit in de vijvers. Histopathologisch onderzoek op garnalen uit vijvers die waren besmet met white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) toonde sferische structuren in lymfe organen aan en cellen met pycnotische en karyorrhetische kernen in lymfe organen, haematopoietisch weefsel, bindweefsel, het hart en de antennale klier. In sommige gevallen waren de pycnotische cellen omkapseld, zonder beschadiging van het omliggende weefsel en zonder tekenen van melanisatie. Tijdens dit thesisonderzoek werd meerdere malen waargenomen dat het risico op het uitbreken van deze ziekte groter was in grote vijvers dan in kleine vijvers. Dit was toe te schrijven aan de aanwezigheid van een grotere garnalenpopulatie en niet zozeer aan de dimensie van de vijver in se . In grote groepen neemt het kannibalisme namelijk toe. Tot besluit kunnen we stellen dat zowel klimaat – in het bijzonder de temperatuur – als populatiegrootte werden geïdentificeerd als de meest kritische factoren bij het uitbreken van WSD. Voor het gecontroleerd beheer van ziekten werden twee strategieën uitgetest. Een eerste preventiestrategie bestond uit het opdelen van de vijvers in percelen met behulp van nylon netten, om de vorming van te grote populaties te voorkomen. Als gevolg werden inderdaad hogere overlevingspercentages en opbrengsten behaald in kleine vijvers dan in middelgrote en grote vijvers. Belangrijk was de observatie dat verschillen in opbrengst tussen kleine en grote commerciële bedrijven meer uitgesproken waren bij hogere garnaaldensiteiten. Het onderzoek leidde tot de conclusie dat, althans bij hoge densiteiten, het opdelen van vijvers in kleinere percelen nuttig is om de impact van WSD of elke andere besmettelijke contactziekte te reduceren. Bij lage densiteiten geeft deze strategie echter weinig voordeel. Een tweede preventiestrategie richtte zich tot het onder controle houden van elk type epidemische ziekte, vooral op regionaal niveau. Een online operationeel alarm mechanisme (SAEMA) dat zich baseert op productie-monitoring werd ontwikkeld voor de Golf van Guayaquil, de grootste garnaalregio van Ecuador. Een alarm index die een gestandaardiseerde index van productie en beheer omvat (afgekort tot AIPM) werd opgesteld, gebaseerd op de oogstresultaten van elke vijver. In deze studie werd duidelijk dat een daling van deze index overeenkwam met een daling van de overleving twee maanden later, wat bevestigde dat de AIPM wel degelijk als alarm index kan worden gebruikt. Het online alarm systeem gebruikt historische gemiddelden om anomalieën te berekenen en staat toe vier verschillende alarmfases te onderscheiden op regionaal niveau, op niveau van het vetmestingsbedrijf en op niveau van de specifieke vijver. Dit mechanisme is reeds zes maanden werkzaam in real time (van mei tot oktober 2006) in 19 vetmestingsbedrijven. SAEMA vertegenwoordigt een belangrijke stap in de ontwikkeling van een globaal nationaal voorspellend alarm systeem voor epidemische ziekten bij garnalen en is nu reeds een doeltreffend middel voor het beheer van epidemische ziekten. Shrimp farming represents the third largest economical activity of Ecuador, preceded only by the petroleum and banana industries. However, in the past two decades, this Ecuadorian industry was hit by disease outbreaks on several occasions. White Spot Disease (WSD) drastically decreased the country’s production output from 120,000 ton Pacific white shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) in 1998 to just 37,000 ton in 1999. To allow a global and sustainable development of the industry, it is a priority to develop prevention and control methods for diseases, and to reduce the risk of introductions of new pathogens. To contribute to this goal, the determinants associated with shrimp diseases of economic importance, such as white spot disease (WSD), need to be characterized, in particular those related to environmental factors. The aim of this thesis was twofold: (a) obtain a better understanding of WSD determinants associated with the environment, using an epidemiological approach, and (b) design a preventive control strategy for shrimp diseases. To improve the knowledge of the WSD epidemics, risk factors were studied at national level (Ecuador) and at pond level. It was found that at the country level WSD is influenced by climate. Three epidemiological surveys in Ecuadorian farms showed an apparent association between lower temperatures and increased mortality rates in commercial ponds. Histopathological observations of shrimp infected with White Spot Syndrome Virus (WSSV) showed lymphoid organ spheroids and cells with pyknotic and karyorrhectic nuclei in the haematopoietic tissue, lymphoid organ, connective tissue, heart and antennal gland. Occasionally, pyknotic cells were encapsulated without apparent injury to the adjacent tissue and without melanization. Several times during the present research, the risk of disease outbreaks was higher in larger ponds than in smaller ponds. This was attributed rather to a larger population size than to pond size. The risk was related to an increment in the size of the shrimp groups, the bigger ones representing higher levels of cannibalism. In conclusion, climate – in particular temperature – and population size were found to play an essential role in WSD outbreaks. Two strategies for disease control were studied. A first prevention strategy consisted in parcelling the ponds using nylon nets, diminishing the risk of large groupings. Higher survival and yield were obtained in small areas compared with medium and large areas. It was found that differences in yield between small and large commercial areas were more pronounced at higher densities. As such, parcelling can be useful to diminish the impact of WSD - or any other infectious disease transmitted by contact - in ponds stocked at high density. At low stocking densities, this strategy does not produce any significant effect. A second prevention strategy focuses on the preventive control of any disease, with special emphasis on the regional level. An online operational alert system (SAEMA) for the Gulf of Guayaquil - the largest shrimp farming region of Ecuador - was developed, based on production surveillance. An alert index containing standardized anomalies of production and management indexes (AIPM) was established, based on harvest data. This alert system calculates deviations from historical averages. AIPM-drops present a 2-month forward warning concerning drops of survival, and the field data confirm that AIPM can be used as a valid alert index. Four alert levels can be displayed at three levels: regional, farm and pond level. The system has been operating successfully in real time during six months (form May to October 2006) in 19 shrimp farms. SAEMA is an important step forward in the elaboration of a complete early warning system for shrimp epidemics and represents a useful contribution to the control of diseases. During the last decades, the contribution of aquaculture to the global supply of finfish, crustaceans and molluscs has grown more rapidly than capture fisheries. One of the fastest growing production sectors is the culture of penaeid shrimp. Shrimp farming represents the third Ecuadorian economical activity after the production of petroleum and bananas. However, diseases are among the greatest threats affecting the sustainability of shrimp aquaculture. In Ecuador, diseases of cultured shrimp (Penaeus vannamei) have been quickly transmitted from one region to another. Therefore, an early detection system of impending epidemics would serve as an important management tool for the aquaculture sector. In the framework of this thesis we developed a system for the early detection of shrimp epidemics for the largest shrimp zone of Ecuador (Gulf of Guayaquil) based on production surveillance. The system, called Epidemiological Alert System and Aquaculture Management (SAEMA), uses a geographical information system (GIS) with an imaginary grid cartography (12,860 ha per grid) dividing the study area and an image from Landsat 7 satellite with a pond level resolution. A production and management index (IPM) is calculated with the harvest data in each shrimp pond. A standardized deviation (AIPM) from the historical averages as well as an alert level is calculated per grid and per month. Results are classified in four categories. Normal conditions of production and therefore the absence of disease are depicted in green and yellow. While orange and red colours express two degrees of disease warning manifested through suboptimal production levels. A similar alert is calculated for farms and ponds. As a result, a map of the Guayaquil Gulf with grid divisions is displayed, with a specific alert colour for each grid which contains information. SAEMA was developed as a Web application ( http://www.saema.espol.edu.ec ) using open sources. This web application enables producers to record data via a defined worksheet format using any web browser. Instantaneously, the application performs a calculation of the alert index and gives feedback to the alert levels displayed in three types of interactive maps (regional, farm and pond alert). The system uses Spanish as communication language. A feedback process started in May 2006 with 19 shrimp farms. The information is updated monthly. The objective of this research is to develop a platform for an early detection of shrimp epidemics on a regional scale. The detection of an epidemic, expressed as suboptimal production in a specific region, could allow producers from other zones to engage, on time, in preventive measures to reduce the disease from spreading. This is the first report for an automated outbreak detection system based on production data for shrimp epidemics at a regional level.

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Dissertation
Management of Chaetoceros calcitrans growth in hypersaline Artemia franciscana ponds by optimizing nitrogen and phosphorus availability.

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The introduction of Artemia franciscana to the coastal areas of the Mekong Delta of Vietnam fulfills the country’s needs to develop aquaculture activities and helps poor salt farmers to improve their living standards. The successful production of Artemia depends on many factors such as temperature, salinity, soil nutrient status and management. Apart from weather conditions and technical aspects, nutrient management for optimal growth of beneficial algae is one of the keys determining the success or failure of Artemia production. In the early stage of Artemia cultivation, algal booms occur in the ponds of rich nutrients if Artemia larvae’s consumption does not keep up with the rate of algal growth. Algal blooms deprive Artemia from its oxygen requirement or lead Artemia to suffer from indigestion since the retention time of algae in Artemia’s digestive tract is too short for effective digestion. In the juvenile stage of Artemia, low algal growth often results in Artemia’s starvation. In order to achieve sustainable Artemia production, the present study was undertaken aiming at a complete understanding on how the prevailing conditions in Artemia ponds (e.g. submergence, extremely high salinity, daily raking of pond bottom sediment) affect the dynamics of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) in the pond sediments and the water column. Equally, we wanted to assess which soil properties control the supply of these nutrients from pond sediments. In turn, the responses of algae to the availability of N and P released from the sediments were quantified to determine whether these elements are limiting the growth of algae. Next, we set up bioassays with algae, in which inorganic N or P was added in different combinations to find the levels of N and P required for optimal growth of beneficial algae in Artemia ponds. We could demonstrate that the hypersaline conditions existing in Artemia ponds do affect both N and P availability. Increasing salinity to 80 g L-1 reduced mineral N accumulation at an early stage of submergence. However, these adverse effects of high salinity on N mineralization are short-lived as net N mineralization rate recovered after two weeks of submergence. Some of the heterotrophic organisms present in these soils may apparently adapt to high salinity, since these soils had been permanently submerged with highly saline water during the subsequent Artemia cultivation cycles. Extremely high salinity enhanced P availability and mobility. When sediments were extracted with artificial sweater (Instant Ocean at 70g L-1, EC 84-94 dS m-1), the concentrations of Dissolved Reactive P (DRP) present in the water column were 1.5 to 3 fold above the concentrations of DRP in the extracts with lower salinity (EC 11-23 dS m-1). In the standing water column, a large amount of DRP was immobilized by soil microorganisms. In current Artemia cultivation practice, disturbing pond sediments as daily rake of the pond bottom to feed Artemia favours conditions for the release and maintenance of available N and P. Under these conditions, the availability of N and P to algae utilization can be reliably predicted based on some simple soil chemical tests: the presence of Dissolved Inorganic N (DIN) after submergence can be predicted from the amounts of labile soil organic N extractable by hot KCl (R2 = 0.67, P < 0.001); whereas the pools of Olsen-P and/or the concentrations of DRP measured in saline extracts after 24 h equilibration can serve to estimate the availability of P (R2 = 0.64, P < 0.001 and R2 = 0.84, P < 0.001, respectively). We inoculated the diatom Chaetoceros calcitrans in solutions extracted from Artemia pond sediments to investigate its growth in relation to the availability of N and P as measured in the Artemia pond sediments. Large ratios of DIN:DRP in the extracts, ranging between 80 and 520, showed that the sediments from the Artemia ponds are highly unbalanced with respect to N and P. After inoculation, DRP was quickly exhausted in all extracts revealing that P is a limiting nutrient for the growth of algae. Only the media with DRP concentrations above 0.1 mg P L-1 sustained a higher density and biomass of algae. An attempt was made to elucidate the role of other Dissolved Organic P species (DOP) as a P source for algae in environments depleted in DRP. However, this could not be clearly ascertained since the concentrations of DOP in the media were too low (< 0.05 mg P L-1) to meet the requirements of the algae. Finally we performed experiments to determine the required quantities and balanced ratios of N and P for algae growth. The diatom C. calcitrans was used again and inoculated in the sediment extracts, amended with inorganic N or P in different combinations. Again, algae growth resulted in an exhaustion of DRP in all media. Adding inorganic P stimulated algae to assimilate more N and resulted in increases in algal densities (R2 = 0.70, P < 0.001) and biomass (R2 = 0.68, P < 0.001). Alternately, adding inorganic N decreased algal production. The densities of algae decreased logarithmically when DIN:DRP ratios increased from 50 to 910. When DIN:DRP ratios exceed 150, algal densities and biomass were constantly low, regardless the availability of DRP. Below a ratio of DIN:DRP of 150, the densities and biomass of algae were strongly dependent on the initial concentrations of DRP. When DIN:DRP ratio in the water column drops below 150, increasing DRP will stimulate algae to take up more DIN; however, the N and P contents of algal biomass always maintained a balance between 12 and 23. This suggests that a ratio of N:P in the water column not too remote from 23 will be more optimal for algae growth. The present study reveals that the growth of algae in Artemia ponds is limited by P. As a whole, the data suggest that supplying DRP above 0.1 mg P L-1 and at the same time maintaining DIN:DRP ratios below 150 is suitable for the growth of C. calcitrans in Artemia ponds. In the early stage of Artemia cultivation, however, DIN:DRP ratios in the pond water drop below this value due to supplying inorganic P may bring a serious risk of algal blooms.

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