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Depuis des milliers d’années, les coquillages fascinent les hommes. D’abord utilisés à des fins alimentaires, leur utilisation a évolué pour devenir maintenant des objets de collection. De par leur nouvelle définition est apparue une nouvelle dynamique autour d’eux à savoir une dynamique économique. La création de marchés et de salle des ventes destinés aux coquillages a permis de consolider leur place parmi les objets de collection mais a également fait se développer des marchés de contrefaçon. Ces marchés proposent de manière directe et légale des faux à la revente ou de manière illégale c’est-à-dire sans mention de leurs altérations et l’on parle à ce moment-là de vente de Fakes, nom désignant des coquilles altérées par l’Homme. L’identification de ces Fakes est alors au cœur du sujet et de nombreuses méthodes plus ou moins sophistiquées ont vu le jour. Imparfaite, il a été tenté ici de mettre au point une méthode de discrimination objective et non destructive des Fakes. 
Pour cela des coquilles d’Oliva oliva ont été utilisées. Celles-ci ont subi un traitement photométrique puis ont été altérées par chauffage au four à moufle avant de subir un deuxième traitement photométrique puis un traitement microscopique. 
Les analyses ont montré la présence de pigments thermolabiles qui, avec la chaleur, passaient de brun à orange et de crème à blanc. Il a également pu être mis en évidence la présence de microfissures, non visibles à l’œil nu mais visibles au SEM, à la surface de la coquille si celle-ci avait été chauffée à 200°C. Les traitements photométriques et microscopiques ont ainsi démontré leurs intérêts et leur avenir dans la discrimination et l’identification des coquillages. For thousands of years, seashells have fascinated people. First used for food purposes, their use has evolved into now a collector's item. By their new definition, a new dynamic has emerged around them, namely an economic dynamic. The creation of a market and auction room for shells helped consolidate their place among collectibles but also led to the development of counterfeit markets. These markets offer directly and legally counterfeit for resale or illegally, when there is no mention of alterations and we speak then of Fakes, name designating shells altered by humans. The identification of these Fakes is then at the heart of the subject and many, more or less sophisticated, methods have emerged. Imperfect, it has been attempted here to develop an objective and non-destructive method of discrimination against Fakes.
For this, Oliva oliva shells were used. These have undergone a photometric treatment before being altered by heating in a muffle furnace before undergoing a second photometric treatment and then a microscopic treatment.
The analyzes showed heat-labile pigments which with heat changed from brown to orange and cream to white. It was also possible to demonstrate the presence of microcracks, not visible to the naked eye but visible on SEM, on the surface of the shells if they had been heated to 200°C. Photometric and microscopic treatments have thus demonstrated their interest and their future in the discrimination between “natural” shells and Fakes.

olividae --- oliva oliva --- microscopie --- photométrie --- coquille --- Fakes --- pigment --- Sciences du vivant > Sciences de l'environnement & écologie

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From deepfakes to GPT-3, deep learning is now powering a new assault on our ability to tell what's real and what's not, bringing a whole new algorithmic side to fake news. On the other hand, remarkable methods are being developed to help automate fact-checking and the detection of fake news and doctored media. Success in the modern business world requires you to understand these algorithmic currents, and to recognize the strengths, limits, and impacts of deep learning---especially when it comes to discerning the truth and differentiating fact from fiction. This book tells the stories of this algorithmic battle for the truth and how it impacts individuals and society at large. In doing so, it weaves together the human stories and what's at stake here, a simplified technical background on how these algorithms work, and an accessible survey of the research literature exploring these various topics. How Algorithms Create and Prevent Fake News is an accessible, broad account of the various ways that data-driven algorithms have been distorting reality and rendering the truth harder to grasp. From news aggregators to Google searches to YouTube recommendations to Facebook news feeds, the way we obtain information today is filtered through the lens of tech giant algorithms. The way data is collected, labelled, and stored has a big impact on the machine learning algorithms that are trained on it, and this is a main source of algorithmic bias which gets amplified in harmful data feedback loops. Dont be afraid: with this book youll see the remedies and technical solutions that are being applied to oppose these harmful trends. There is hope.

Fake news --- Deepfakes --- Computer algorithms. --- Prevention. --- Algorithms --- Deep fakes --- Deepfake AI --- Disinformation --- Forgery --- News, Fake --- Hoaxes --- Journalism --- Social media. --- User-generated media --- Communication --- User-generated content

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Fakes and forgeries are objects of fascination. This volume contains a series of thirteen articles devoted to fakes and forgeries of written artefacts from the beginnings of writing in Mesopotamia to modern China. The studies emphasise the subtle distinctions conveyed by an established vocabulary relating to the reproduction of ancient artefacts and production of artefacts claiming to be ancient: from copies, replicas and imitations to fakes and forgeries. Fakes are often a response to a demand from the public or scholarly milieu, or even both. The motives behind their production may be economic, political, religious or personal – aspiring to fame or simply playing a joke. Fakes may be revealed by combining the study of their contents, codicological, epigraphic and palaeographic analyses, and scientific investigations. However, certain famous unsolved cases still continue to defy technology today, no matter how advanced it is. Nowadays, one can find fakes in museums and private collections alike; they abound on the antique market, mixed with real artefacts that have often been looted. The scientific community’s attitude to such objects calls for ethical reflection.

LITERARY CRITICISM / Asian / General. --- Fakes. --- forgeries. --- written artefacts. --- Geographical Subject Heading. --- Forgeries. --- Written artefacts. --- Forgery of manuscripts. --- Forgery of antiquities. --- Literary forgeries and mystifications. --- Frauds, Literary --- Literary frauds --- Literary hoaxes --- Literary mystifications --- Mystifications, Literary --- Authorship --- Errors and blunders, Literary --- Forgery --- Hoaxes --- Literary curiosa --- Anonyms and pseudonyms --- Imaginary books and libraries --- Pasticcio --- Antiquities, Forgery of --- Archaeological forgeries --- Antiquities --- Art --- Manuscripts --- Manuscripts, Forgery of --- Forgeries

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In the early nineteenth century, the American commercial marketplace was a chaotic, unregulated environment in which knock-offs and outright frauds thrived. Appearances could be deceiving, and entrepreneurs often relied on their personal reputations to close deals and make sales. Rapid industrialization and expanding trade routes opened new markets with enormous potential, but how could distant merchants convince potential customers, whom they had never met, that they could be trusted? Through wide-ranging visual and textual evidence, including a robust selection of early advertisements, Branding Trust tells the story of how advertising evolved to meet these challenges, tracing the themes of character and class as they intertwined with and influenced graphic design, trademark law, and ideas about ethical business practice in the United States.As early as the 1830s, printers, advertising agents, and manufacturers collaborated to devise new ways to advertise goods. They used eye-catching designs and fonts to grab viewers' attention and wove together meaningful images and prose to gain the public's trust. At the same time, manufacturers took legal steps to safeguard their intellectual property, formulating new ways to protect their brands by taking legal action against counterfeits and frauds. By the end of the nineteenth century, these advertising and legal strategies came together to form the primary components of modern branding: demonstrating character, protecting goodwill, entertaining viewers to build rapport, and deploying the latest graphic innovations in print. Trademarks became the symbols that embodied these ideas-in print, in the law, and to the public.Branding Trust thus identifies and explains the visual rhetoric of trust and legitimacy that has come to reign over American capitalism. Though the 1920s has often been held up as the birth of modern advertising, Jennifer M. Black argues that advertising professionals had in fact learned how to navigate public relations over the previous century by adapting the language, imagery, and ideas of the American middle class.

Brand name products --- Marketing --- Trademarks --- Law and legislation --- Advertising history. --- American middle-class. --- Franco-American chef. --- Lydia Pinkham. --- National Biscuit. --- Quaker Oats man. --- Trademark law. --- billboards. --- brand. --- branding. --- character. --- consumers. --- corporate capitalism. --- counterfeits. --- display. --- fakes. --- font. --- fraud. --- goodwill. --- graphic design history. --- illustrations. --- infringement. --- knock off. --- labels. --- logos. --- media. --- newspaper. --- packaging. --- pictorial. --- print culture. --- product name. --- trade cards. --- visual culture. --- white space.