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Prokaryotes have a complex cell envelope which has several important functions, including providing a barrier that protects the cytoplasm from the environment. Along with its associated proteinaceous structures, it also ensures cell stability, facilitates motility, mediates adherence to biotic and abiotic surfaces, and facilitates communication with the extracellular environment. Viruses have evolved to take advantage of cell envelope constituents to gain access to the cellular interior as well as for egress from the cell. While many aspects of the biosynthesis and structure of the cell envelope are similar across domains, archaeal cell envelopes have several unique characteristics including, among others, an isoprenoid lipid bilayer, a non-murein-based cell wall, and a unique motility structure, important features that give archaeal cell envelopes characteristics that are significantly different from those of bacterial cell envelopes. Recent analyses have revealed that the cell envelopes of distantly related archaea also display an immense diversity of characteristics. For instance, while many archaea have an S-layer, the subunits of S-layers of various archaeal species, as well as their posttranslational modifications, vary significantly. Moreover, like gram-negative bacteria, recent studies have shown that some archaeal species also have an outer membrane. In this collection of articles, we include contributions that focus on research that has expanded our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the biogenesis and functions of archaeal cell envelopes and their constituent surface structures.

Archaebacteria. --- Microbiology. --- pili --- membrane --- Biofilms --- hami --- Archaea --- S-layer --- Cytochromes --- Surface structures --- Flagella --- archaella

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Prokaryotes have a complex cell envelope which has several important functions, including providing a barrier that protects the cytoplasm from the environment. Along with its associated proteinaceous structures, it also ensures cell stability, facilitates motility, mediates adherence to biotic and abiotic surfaces, and facilitates communication with the extracellular environment. Viruses have evolved to take advantage of cell envelope constituents to gain access to the cellular interior as well as for egress from the cell. While many aspects of the biosynthesis and structure of the cell envelope are similar across domains, archaeal cell envelopes have several unique characteristics including, among others, an isoprenoid lipid bilayer, a non-murein-based cell wall, and a unique motility structure, important features that give archaeal cell envelopes characteristics that are significantly different from those of bacterial cell envelopes. Recent analyses have revealed that the cell envelopes of distantly related archaea also display an immense diversity of characteristics. For instance, while many archaea have an S-layer, the subunits of S-layers of various archaeal species, as well as their posttranslational modifications, vary significantly. Moreover, like gram-negative bacteria, recent studies have shown that some archaeal species also have an outer membrane. In this collection of articles, we include contributions that focus on research that has expanded our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the biogenesis and functions of archaeal cell envelopes and their constituent surface structures.

Archaebacteria. --- Microbiology. --- pili --- membrane --- Biofilms --- hami --- Archaea --- S-layer --- Cytochromes --- Surface structures --- Flagella --- archaella

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This narrative history of the Tibetan Empire in Central Asia from about A.D. 600 to 866 depicts the struggles of the great Tibetan, Turkic, Arab, and Chinese powers for dominance over the Silk Road lands that connected Europe and East Asia. It shows the importance of overland contacts between East and West in the Early Middle Ages and elucidates Tibet's role in the conflict over Central Asia.

Asia, Central --- Tibet Autonomous Region (China) --- History. --- China --- Central Asia --- Aachen. --- An Lu-shan. --- Atlakh. --- Bayarqu. --- Bilgä Qaghan. --- Buddhism. --- Camel Bridge. --- Charlemagne. --- Ch’ang-an. --- Damascus. --- Ferghana. --- Gobi Desert. --- Hami. --- Harun al-Rashid. --- Ho-hsi. --- Hsüan-tsung. --- Islam. --- Issyk Kul. --- Japanese. --- Jungarian Basin. --- Kan chou. --- Kao Hsien-chih. --- Kashgar. --- Kashmir. --- Khuganda. --- Liang chou. --- Little Balûr. --- Mediterranean Sea. --- Nan-chao. --- Ordos. --- Oxus River. --- Pamirs. --- Qośu Khan. --- Samarkand. --- agriculture. --- castles. --- commerce and merchants. --- conversion and apostasy. --- embassies and envoys. --- ethnicity. --- fish-bags. --- gold. --- horses.