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Linkages between the real and financial sectors in an economy can lead to a buildup of balance sheet mismatches of key entities-corporates, financial institutions, households, and the public sector. Once such imbalances have built up, they can make the economy vulnerable to macroeconomic shocks, whether external or domestic in origin. This paper discusses the key mismatches that can make entities vulnerable to shocks and how such vulnerability can build up during the business cycle. Against this backdrop, the paper then discusses a framework and potential indicators that may be useful to monitor such developments. These indicators are being developed as part of the MFM macro-financial monitoring effort. The paper is organized as follows. Section two provides a brief discussion of the risks associated with these different balance sheet mismatches. Section three discusses how positive shocks in the real sector-such as an upturn in domestic business cycles (which in turn are often instigated or accompanied by external developments such as capital inflows)-can interact with the financial sector and lead to a build-up of balance sheet mismatches. Section four then describes how, once such vulnerability has been built up, a negative shock can lead to a downward spiral of credit contraction and economic downturns. Finally, section five discusses a possible set of indicators for measuring the buildup of vulnerability.

Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies --- Economic Conditions and Volatility --- Macroeconomic Management --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth

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South Asia remains the fastest growing region in the world. With a strong performance in the eastern part of the region - in particular in Bhutan, Bangladesh and India - the region defied disappointing world growth in 2016. Inflation slowed down in the second half of 2016, mainly due to lower food prices, but appears to be turning up again. Despite recent real exchange rate appreciation, current account balances are mostly in order throughout the region. After a sharp decline triggered by lower oil prices, remittance inflows are stabilizing in most countries and international reserves are mostly at comfortable levels. Progress on fiscal consolidation has been more gradual and public debt levels remain high. South Asia's performance will maintain momentum, with the gap between its growth rate and that of East Asia slightly widening over time. Regional growth is expected to surpass 7 percent from 2018 onwards. Robust domestic demand, an uptick in exports, and steady FDI inflows underlie this positive outlook. But with financial sector risks remaining, creating financing opportunities for private investment remains a challenge. Pressures against international trade are mounting. The negotiation of mega-regional trade agreements stalled, the number of protectionist measures has increased, and existing agreements may be reconsidered. South Asia was already less integrated in global merchandise trade than other regions. In light of current pressures, a legitimate question is whether it should focus on exports as a driver of economic growth and job creation. However, the prospects for the region are better than it seems. The stalled mega-regional trade agreements, which did not include any South Asian country, were expected to reduce South Asia's competitiveness. Simulations on the impact of hypothetical new trade barriers applied across the board suggest that the harm for the region would be limited. And in a scenario where hypothetical new trade barriers would be applied selectively, South Asia could actually benefit from trade diversion. The region also stands to gain from the observed growth recovery in advanced economies, because they are the main markets for its exports. The current globalization backlash should thus not dissuade South Asian countries from having a stronger outward orientation. But the gains for the region would be larger if its exports were more diversified and its supply response were more elastic.

Economic Conditions and Volatility --- Economic Forecasting --- Economic Growth --- Economic Policy --- Export Competitiveness --- Fiscal Policy --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Trade

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Malawi's economic growth has historically been undermined by exogenous, climate-induced shocks, as well as economic policies and management that have often exacerbated the impact of shocks. Yet since 2017, Malawi has been enjoying a period of economic stability, with double-digit inflation tamed, and a stable exchange rate for the first time since 2011. This is the first module of a programmatic Public Expenditure Review.

Economic Conditions and Volatility --- Fiscal and Monetary Policy --- Fiscal Policy --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Public Sector Development --- Public Spending

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The COVID-19 (coronavirus) pandemic crisis combines the worst characteristics of previous crises. It features a simultaneous supply and demand shock; domestic, regional, and global scope; a projected long duration; and a high degree of uncertainty. What can be expected for recovery from the pandemic crisis across the world? This brief first assesses the projections of economic activity in 2020 and 2021 and the domestic and international conditions that will constrain and drive a possible recovery. It then discusses the potential shapes of the recovery (or lack thereof) for specific country conditions. Finally, it explores the need to balance short-term and long-term concerns, arguing in favor of policies that focus on sustained recovery, rather than quick but debt-fueled and short-lived gains. Drawing on the lessons from past crises, the brief concludes that sustained economic recovery is possible only when the underlying causes are addressed and the foundations of growth are protected. For the pandemic crisis, this implies mitigating the spread of the disease to manageable levels while keeping the economy sufficiently active. In the short term, economic policy should focus on preventing further poverty, averting unnecessary business closures, and avoiding lasting damage to human capital and productivity. In the long term, policy reform should address the structural vulnerabilities that the pandemic crisis has exposed. This includes reforms to expand labor and business formalization; to improve the coverage and adequacy of social protection; to extend financial inclusion to elderly, rural, and poor people; to promote digital transformation across society; and, most basically, to improve access to and quality of public health care.

Business Cycles and Stabilization Policies --- Coronavirus --- COVID-19 --- Economic Conditions and Volatility --- Economic Growth --- Macroeconomic Management --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth

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The paper develops a concept and a measure of the monetary capacity of a country to reduce its own poverty and shows how these tools can be used to guide budget allocations or the allocation of aid. The authors call this concept the income lever. Making use of tax and distributive theory, the paper shows how different redistributive criteria correspond to the different normative criteria of the income lever. It then constructs various income lever indexes based on these criteria and uses such indexes to rank countries according to their own capacity to reduce poverty. As shown in the empirical application, this methodology can provide an equitable tool to rank countries or regions when it comes to budget or aid allocations, whether it is the allocation of social funds within the European Union (North-North transfers) or the allocation of aid from rich to poor countries (North-South transfers). The findings indicate that the allocation of social funds in the European Union follows closely the rank that results from the income lever indexes proposed while the allocation of aid to Sub-Saharan African countries does not.

Achieving Shared Growth --- Aid Distribution --- Economic Conditions and Volatility --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Poverty Reduction --- Redistribution Policies --- Regional Economic Development --- Rural Poverty Reduction --- Services & Transfers to Poor