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Levels of economic development vary widely within countries in the Americas. This paper argues that part of this variation has its roots in the colonial era. Colonizers engaged in different economic activities in different regions of a country, depending on local conditions. Some activities were "bad" in the sense that they depended heavily on the exploitation of labor and created extractive institutions, while "good" activities created inclusive institutions. The authors show that areas with bad colonial activities have lower gross domestic product per capita today than areas with good colonial activities. Areas with high pre-colonial population density also do worse today. In particular, the positive effect of "good" activities goes away in areas with high pre-colonial population density. The analysis attributes this to the "ugly" fact that colonizers used the pre-colonial population as an exploitable resource. The intermediating factor between history and current development appears to be institutional differences across regions and not income inequality or the current ethnic composition of the population.

Country Population Profiles --- Demographics --- Economic Theory & Research --- Gross domestic product --- Health, Nutrition and Population --- Human capital --- Income inequality --- Labor force --- Native population --- Policy Research --- Policy Research Working Paper --- Population density --- Population Policies --- Progress --- Social sciences

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This volume comprises high-quality works in pure and applied mathematics from the mathematical communities in Spain and Brazil. A wide range of subjects are covered, ranging from abstract algebra, including Lie algebras, commutative semigroups, and differential geometry, to optimization and control in real world problems such as fluid mechanics, the numerical simulation of cancer PDE models, and the stability of certain dynamical systems. The book is based on contributions presented at the Second Joint Meeting Spain-Brazil in Mathematics, held in Cádiz in December 2018, which brought together more than 330 delegates from around the world. All works were subjected to a blind peer review process. The book offers an excellent summary of the recent activity of Spanish and Brazilian research groups and will be of interest to researchers, PhD students, and graduate scholars seeking up-to-date knowledge on these pure and applied mathematics subjects.

Dynamics. --- Ergodic theory. --- Partial differential equations. --- Computer mathematics. --- Geometry. --- Associative rings. --- Rings (Algebra). --- Group theory. --- Dynamical Systems and Ergodic Theory. --- Partial Differential Equations. --- Computational Mathematics and Numerical Analysis. --- Associative Rings and Algebras. --- Group Theory and Generalizations. --- Groups, Theory of --- Substitutions (Mathematics) --- Algebra --- Algebraic rings --- Ring theory --- Algebraic fields --- Rings (Algebra) --- Mathematics --- Euclid's Elements --- Computer mathematics --- Electronic data processing --- Partial differential equations --- Ergodic transformations --- Continuous groups --- Mathematical physics --- Measure theory --- Transformations (Mathematics) --- Dynamical systems --- Kinetics --- Mechanics, Analytic --- Force and energy --- Mechanics --- Physics --- Statics --- Applied mathematics. --- Dynamical systems. --- Differential equations. --- Associative algebras. --- Dynamical Systems. --- Differential Equations. --- Data processing. --- Algebras, Associative --- 517.91 Differential equations --- Differential equations

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This paper argues that legislative malapportionment, denoting a discrepancy between the share of legislative seats and the share of population held by electoral districts, serves as a tool for pre-democratic elites to preserve their political power and economic interests after a transition to democracy. The authors claim that legislative malapportionment enhances the pre-democratic elite's political influence by over-representing areas that are more likely to vote for parties aligned with the elite. This biased political representation survives in equilibrium as long as it helps democratic consolidation. Using data from Latin America, the authors document empirically that malapportionment increases the probability of transitioning to a democracy. Moreover, the data show that over-represented electoral districts are more likely to vote for parties close to pre-democracy ruling groups. The analysis also finds that overrepresented areas have lower levels of political competition and receive more transfers per capita from the central government, both of which favor the persistence of power of pre-democracy elites.

Democracies --- Democratic regimes --- Economic power --- Elections --- Electoral systems --- Emerging Markets --- Governance --- Labor Policies --- Legislation --- Macroeconomics and Economic Growth --- Parliamentary Government --- Political Economy --- Political groups --- Political influence --- Political representation --- Political Systems and Analysis --- Private Sector Development --- Social Protections and Labor --- Voting

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Pay equity --- Sex discrimination against women --- Wages